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6V THE SAME AUTHOR 

THE 
COMPLETE JOURNALIST 

A Study of the 

Principles and Practice of 

Newspaper Making 

Demy 8<y0, 396 pp. 
2os. net 



SUB-EDITING 

A BOOK MAINLY FOR 
YOUNG JOURNALISTS 



By 

F. J. MANSFIELD 

EDITORIAL STAFF OF "THE TIMES," 1914-1934 
LI.CTUKER AND EXAMINER IN PRACTICAL JOURNALISM 

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, 1925-1934 
PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL UNION OF JOURNALISTS, 1918-1919 



FOURTH EDITION 




LONDON 
SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD. 

1946 



First published . . 1931 

Second edition . . 1935 

Third edition . . 1939 

Fourth edition . . 1946 



SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD. 

PITMAN HOUSE, PAHKER STREET, KINGSWAY, LONDON, W.C.2 

THE PITMAN PRESS, BATH 

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(INCORPORATING -IHE COMMERCIAL TEXT BOOK COMPANY) 
PITMAN HOUSE, .?Hl 383 CHURCH STREET, TORONTO 



MADE IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE PITMAN PRFSS, BATH 
D6-(G.2I2I) 



TO 

THE LADY 

WHO FOR MANY YEARS HAS CHEERFULLY 

ENDURED THE SACRIFICES IMPOSED ON 

A JOURNALIST'S WTFE 

AND BEEN 
MY LOYAL HELPMATE 



Who once hath stood through the loaded hour 

Ere, roaring like the gale, 
The Harrild and the Hoe devour 

Their league-long paper bale, 
And has lit his pipe in the morning calm 

That follows the midnight stress 
He hath sold his heart to the old Black Art 

We call the Daily Press. 

RUDYARD KIPLING, "The Press." 

I believe in the power of the Press. I believe in the 
potentiality of the Press. I believe even more in the 
responsibility of the Press ; and I believe most of all that 
the British Press is the best and cleanest in the world. 

LORD ROSEBERY in 1913. 



PREFACE 

TO FOURTH EDITION 

THE end of the second World War leaves the 
printing industry, and of course the newspaper 
press, suffering from an acute shortage of 
labour and materials. The issue of a fourth 
edition of this book is therefore a formidable 
task. But there is not a single copy of the third 
edition left for sale, and there is a definite 
demand for literature on journalism. Young men 
now serving in the Allied Forces are largely 
thinking of a career, and many turn to jour- 
nalism. Hence there is a real need for vocational 
books, among which I am happy to realise there 
is a definite place for SUB-EDITING, which 
remains to-day, I believe, the only British 
textbook solely devoted to that department of 
journalism. Once again in war-time the sub- 
editor has proved his value and, indeed, indis- 
pensability. At the present time the competent 
sub-editor is "worth his weight in gold/' 

No re-casting of the book on a large scale is 
feasible. Fortunately it is unnecessary, for, 
broadly speaking, the essentials of sub-editorial 
work here described stand good to-day, though 
method and technique are liable, as always, to 
fluctuation. When this book was first published 
local papers in important areas of the provinces 
were vigorously contesting the assault of the 
" chain " papers, controlled from London. This 
form of competition has died down in war- 
time its extension has, of course, been impos- 
sible. Will it revive when paper is once more 



viii PREFACE 

abundant? During the last five years the 
provincial papers have lengthened their cords 
and strengthened their stakes. The pull of 
home town news has been very evident among 
our soldiers abroad, and the daily and weekly 
papers in the country have proved their value 
in propaganda campaigns of all kinds. 

As to the "Legal Pitfalls" of Chapter VII, 
there has been no new legislation, apart from 
the emergency measures of war; and the 
demand for reform in the law of libel still 
remains unsatisfied. Judgments in libel cases 
give the most illuminating guidance to the 
sub-editor. For example, in 1942 a case was 
decided on the question of privilege in "state- 
ments made in discharge of a duty/' A borough 
council issued with its agenda a committee 
report defamatory of employees in relation to 
thefts of petrol. It was held that there wa? no 
common interest between the council and the 
ratepayers which "would warrant such publica- 
tion at a preliminary stage of the investigation, 
and the occasion was therefore not privileged. 
Therefore, sub-editors, beware of the council 
agenda, and the good stories sometimes found 
therein ! When the council deals with the subject 
in public meeting a fair and accurate report is 
privileged. "The Pressman and the Law/' by 
G. F. L. Bridgman (Hon. Standing Counsel to 
the National Union of Journalists), published 
by Pitman in 1938, is a valuable and concise 
guide. 

So many innovations have been tried in 
headlines ajid the make-up of pages (Chapters V 



PREFACE ix 

and VI) that anything really new is rare, but 
all who are bent on sub-editing should keep a 
watchful eye and exercise their own ingenuity. 

F. J. MANSFIELD/ 

December, 1945. 

PREFACE 

TO FIRST EDITION 

AMONG the many books that have been published 
about journalism there is not one, so far as I can 
discover, devoted solely to the art and craft of sub- 
editing. That fact, and the desire to do something in 
permanent form to help the beginner, are my warrant 
for this study of a growing and highly-specialized 
branch of our profession. I can only hope that this 
book will be judged worthy of filling the gap, and that 
the style of treatment adopted will prove helpful. 
My method is just that of a sub-editor talking about 
his work to a sympathetic and interested audience. 
As a class, sub-editors are not vocal, much less vocifer- 
ous, about their province, and yet it is surprising to 
find, on sitting down to research and reflection, how 
much there is to be said in the way of information, 
advice, and warning to the inexperienced. I have 
written quite a big "piece" based on nearly 45 years' 
work, but even so the book is suggestive rather than 
exhaustive. Sometimes I write as we talk, using 
colloquial terms without footnote or glossary, on the 
assumption that my readers have been long enough 
within range of the smell of printer's ink to understand 
them. 

Journalism is highly dynamic and, although some 
principles stand firm, methods are constantly changing, 
and there is always room for bright ideas of the new 
day. The nimble mind finds an ever-open door for 
fresh, attractive forms in arraying stories, planning 
pages, and making-up. My aim has been to show how 



x PREFACE 

far, and in what way, ideas have developed up to this 
year 1931. As far as one can see, the sub-editor is 
destined to hold an increasingly responsible place in 
the editorial hierarchy. 

This book must not be taken as an inducement to 
young persons to enter journalism. Unhappily the field 
of employment is becoming more restricted owing to 
newspaper amalgamations. Although the idealists 
may their shadow never grow less! do not cease to 
preach the doctrine of the responsibility of the journal- 
ist to State and City (the garlands, I notice, are very 
scarce) we are discovering that oui calling, like industry 
at large, is subject to economic law. " Rationalization " 
is spelling tragedy to many. It would be for the good of 
the public, and of the journalist, if the old competitive 
and independent days were restored. But, as things 
are, I must not be regarded as throwing out invitations 
to the youth of the country to enter journalism as a 
road to material success. Rather my purpose is to 
give counsel to those who have already made their 
choice and are fixed in journalism for good or ill. Even 
in these dark and depressing days there is a demand 
for good sub-editors. 

I am neither counsel nor witness in the action of 
"Reporter v. Sub-editor." In reality I do not regard 
it any more seriously than I do the case of "Bardell v. 
Pickwick." But it will be evident that, in my view, 
sub-editing demands greater all-round knowledge, 
experience, and capacity for sound judgment than 
does reporting. Hence the time-honoured notion, that 
appointment to the sub-editorial desk is "promotion," 
is true as far as the great majority of reporters are 
concerned. 

Although the book deals with British journalism, 
some little attention has been given to America, to 
which we owe so many textbooks and original ideas. 
America makes its distinctive contribution to world 



PREFACE xi 

journalism, and its newspapers are worthy of the study 
of every craftsman. It is equally true that America 
admits its debt to the British tradition. The "copy 
reader" in America, like his British alter ego the sub- 
editor, holds a key position. 

In the chapter on the legal side of our work I have 
tried to clothe the skeleton of doctrine with the flesh 
and blood of living reality by quoting what judges 
have said and what juries have done in actual issues 
that have been carried to court, believing that this 
method will be more interesting and instructive 
than any dissertations on abstract legal principles. 
Moreover, as a layman, I should not presume to 
attempt exposition. 

My thanks are due to several colleagues for reading 
various sections of the manuscript and offering useful 
criticism and advice, namely, Mr. G. F. R. Anderson, 
Mr. E. Hulse (of the Middle Temple), Mr. J. C. M. 
Fairlie, Mr. F. Arnold Mansfield, and Mr. H. Stid- 
worthy. In certain technical details assistance was 
given by Mr. A. Barnes and Mr. F. J. Ashley. 

For permission to print illustrations I am grateful 
to Mr. W. Lints Smith, manager of The Times, Mr. 
W. A. McWhirter, editor-in-chief of the Daily Mail, 
Mr. E. T. Scott, editor of the Manchester Guardian, 
and the editors of the Morning Post, the Daily Tele- 
graph, the Daily Express, the News-Chronicle, the 
Daily Herald, the Birmingham Post, the Liverpool Post, 
the Yorkshire Post, the Scotsman, the Glasgow Herald, 
the Western Mail, the New York Times, and the 
Chicago Tribune. I am also indebted to the authors of 
a number of books, and to the editor of the Journalist, 
from which quotations are made. A list of books 
appears at the end. 

September, iQ3i. 



xii PREFACE 

PREFACE 

TO SECOND EDITION 

ALTHOUGH new developments are constantly occurring 
in journalism there is little in the history of the past 
four years to affect that part of the craft dealt with 
in this book. Anything new in legislative or legal 
aifairs having an effect on sub-editing is included in 
my book, "The Complete Journalist/' published this 
year. 

June, 1935. 

PREFACE 

TO THIRD EDITION 

THE trend of journalism since the second edition was 
issued serves only to confirm the estimate in these 
pages of the growing importance of the sub-editor in 
the newspaper economy. During that period some of 
the distinguished journalists whom I quote have died 
(including C. P. Scott, Charles Hands, Edward Hulse, 
and George E. Beer), but I have not thought it neces- 
sary to alter the tenses in the passages referring to 
them. 

April, 1939. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PREFACE , ..... Vil 

CHAPTER I 

ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS ... I 

A century-old title Thackeray and Carlylc Product 
of the New Journalism Early days What is a sub- 
editor ? Development of the specialist The pivot of the 
paper An American scene Growing importance of the 
work 

CHAPTER II 

QUALIFICATIONS . . . , . l6 

An analysis of equipment The news sense Value oi 
specialization "Human" qualities Writing ability 
not essential J udging style Education for journalism 
Importance of provincial training The university as 
preparation Records of great journalists Inadequate 
appreciation of the sub-editor A striking tribute- -Three 
chiefs on the essentials 

CHAPTER III 

A SURVEY OF THE WORK . . . 4! 

Local journalism and "chain" methods Standpoint of 
the London daily Where all the news converges The 
editorial conference The "copy taster" Putting the 
best point first Condensation and writing-up In- 
genuity in slack times A Northcliffe "splash" 
Politics and speeches Arithmetical vigilance Con- 
structive stories When Homer nods Risky "records" 
Contents bills Foreign work Some regular jobs 
Specializations Admonitions Style books Reference 
books Pictorial journalism 

CHAPTER IV 

ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHY . . -95 

Practical importance Type names and point system 
Samples of types in general use Proof reading Esti- 
mating length Headings to fit Rules for preparing copy 
Handling stories Methods of securing emphasis 
Sample pages analysed 



xiv CONTENTS 

CHAPTER V 

THE ART OF THE HEADLINE . . . 

The main purpose The real point A study in styles 
An idea overdone Avoidance of "label" headings 
Choice of short words Place of humour 



CHAPTER VI 
FASHIONS IN PAGE-MAKING . . . 130 

The old solid pages Innovations in make-up Work 
of the night editor The planning process Getting 
the lead Visualizing the pattern Variety of interest 
Re-making pages Budget day displays Fourteen 
papers compared Questions of broad policy 



CHAPTER VII 
LEGAL PITFALLS: LIBEL AND CONTEMPT . 148 

Questions confronting sub-editors What a libel is 
Collective libels Danger in names A famous case 
Libelling the dead -^Construing the meaning The 
word "story" Corporations and companiesDefences 
to an action Privilege and its limits The journalist's 
Magna Charta Fair comment Libel by inference 
Rights of the Press Contempt of Court A photograph 
Truth no excuse A printer's error A contents bill 
slip Cases of pending appeal A perplexing position 
Copyright 

CHAPTER VIII 

THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT . . . 1Q3 

A decisive role "Yellow" journalism Comprehensive 
catering Reporting criminal trials Freshness and 
originality The "narrative" heading New York and 
Chicago A contrast A British "beat" National 
evolution Old and new headings Mammoth Sunday 
issues- Schools and journalism Standardization of 
technique Importance of make-up Typographical 
Bolshevism A protest and a plea for reversion 

CHAPTER IX 

THE RAW MATERIAL . . . .217 

What is news? Gradations of value The abnormal 
Ability to "spot" news Talking points Stories in 
everything Crime and scandal Defoe's reflection 
Delane's "scoops" 



CONTENTS xv 

PAGE 

AN EXHORTATION . . . . .230 



APPENDICES 

(l) SOURCES OF INFORMATION . .23! 

(ll) SALARIES AND CONDITIONS OF WORK 233 

INDEX ....... 246 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATE , PACE 

1. The Daily Universal Register, 1786 (afterwards 

The Times] . . . between 2-3 

II. The Morning Post, 1772 . . 4-5 

III. Manchester Guardian, First Issue . ,, 6-7 

IV. A Sub-edited Story ,, iio-ui 
V. A Main-page Summary . . ,, no-iii 

VI. Daily Mail, a Recent Page . . facing 112 

VII. Daily Mail, First Issue . . between 114-115 

VIII. Daily Express, i^tli April, 1931 . facing 116 

IX. Daily Herald, 25th April, 1931 . ,, 117 

COMPARATIVE DISPLAY THE BUDGET, 1931 

X. The Times ..... facing 132 

XI. Birmingham Post . . . . ,, 133 

XII. Daily Telegraph . . . . ,, 134 

XIII. Morning Post . . . . ,, 135 

XIV. Daily Herald . . . . ,,136 
XV. Daily Mail 137 

XVI. Daily Express . . . . ,, 138 

XVII. News -Chronicle . . . . ,, 139 

XVIII. Scotsman . . . . . ,,140 

XIX. Glasgow Herald . . . . ,, 141 

XX. Manchester Guardian . . . ,, 142 

XXI. Liverpool Post and Mercury . . ,, 143 

XXII. Yorkshire Post . . . . ,,144 

XXIII. Western Mail and South Wales News ,, 145 



XXIV. New York Times . . . between 196-197 

XXV. Chicago Daily Tribune . . ,, 198-199 

XXVI. A Strube Cartoon .... facing 222 

XXVII. Home Sub-editors of The Times . 226 



SUB-EDITING 

CHAPTER I 
ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 

THE sub-editor has little " historical back- 
ground." He has nothing like the respectable 
antiquity of the printer, stretching back half a 
millennium to the days of Gutenberg. He is 
not to be found in the dim and misty records 
of the first English news sheets of 300 years 
ago, the corantos that succeeded the news let- 
ters of earlier days and represented the growing 
effort to satisfy the public demand for records 
of national and foreign affairs. It would be ex- 
tremely interesting to know if there was any- 
thing like sub-editorial work on the A eta Diurna 
of the Romans or the journal credited to Pekin 
in the sixth century. The Acta were published 
daily, being compiled by actuarii officers, pos- 
sibly the forerunners of the modern sub-editor. 
Julius Caesar is given the credit for originating 
this daily paper, and an effort of the imagina- 
tion might picture the wielding of the Imperial 
blue pencil, which did not, however, eliminate 
the "human stories" of the Capital, for Juvenal 
has told us of a Roman lady passing her morning 
in reading the paper. It contained the births, 
marriages and deaths, and Court news. 

The dictionaries scarcely deign to notice the 
sub-editor, and some of those that do so define 

2 (G.2I2I) I 



2 SUB-EDITING 

him informatively as "one who sub-edits." A 
natural exception to this treatment is the 
"Oxford Dictionary," which describes him as a 
subordinate editor. Webster's definition is "an 
assistant editor." This is misleading to-day, 
for the assistant editor is a person of pre- 
eminence in the modern office, eclipsing the 
sub-editor in the editorial hierarchy. To sub- 
edit, according to the "Oxford Dictionary," is 
to edit a paper or periodical, etc., under, and to 
prepare copy for, the supervision of a chief 
editor, a definition that gets somewhere near 
the mark. Literally an editor is one who brings 
forth, produces, provides, and a sub-editor is 
one who shares in a subordinate capacity in 
these functions. 

Even the term "edit or " was unknown in 
Stuart days and for long after. The writer of a 
newsbook was known as an "author," and a 
periodical writer as a "publisher." Journalists 
in the seventeenth century were pleasantly 
described by Chief Justice Scroggs as "scrib- 
blers who write to eat." If "editor" is a 
comparatively modern term, "sub-editor" is 
still more so, for this sub-division of editorial 
labour could only have occurred with the 
growth and organization of newspapers into 
larger and more elaborate entities. With this 
development of staffs there came into being 
men who were not primarily writers themselves, 
but whose function it was to control and revise 
the writings of others. Here was the germ of 
the distinct and specialized sub-editorial depart- 
ments of to-day. 



ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 3 

Fairly early last century we find occasional 
references in literature to the person and work 
of the sub-editor. Thackeray in " Philip " makes 
some one say, "I can tell you there is a great 
art in sub-editing a paper," and in "Pendennis" 
one of his characters is Jack Finucane, the sub- 
editor of the Pall Mall Gazette, the incongruity 
of whose avocation amused Pen. Paste and 
scissors were his tools. Thackeray got to know 
something of the newspaper business, for he 
was editor of the Cornhill and a regular con- 
tributor to The Times. In 1837, Carlyle in 
"The French Revolution/' with a character- 
istic touch, pictures Tallien "working sedentary 
at the sub-editorial desk/' In these allusions 
we are back nearly 100 years, and apparently 
specific mention of the sub-editor by that title 
goes no earlier. In 1645 we read of a "sub- 
author." In an issue of the Athenaeum in 
1905, a reference marks the strides made by 
the sub-editorial branch of journalism "the 
dry data were set out skilfully enough in 
sub-editorial fashion." 

A Modern Creation 

The fact is that the sub-editor, in the full 
sense of the word, is a modern creation, a pro- 
duct of the new, and ever newer, journalism. 
In the pioneering days of news, when home and 
foreign intelligence was circulated in the hand- 
writing of letter scribes, there was no sub- 
editing. In "The Staple of News" (1626), Ben 
Jonson's fanciful play, the workaday staff of 
the news office were termed clerks, and the 



4 SUB-EDITING 

chief was "master of the Staple and prime 
jeerer " ; there were no sub-editors. Nearly 
forty years later we find Henry Muddiman 
authorized by the Council of State to write a 
weekly newsbook, and he became editor of the 
Oxford Gazette, the immediate predecessor of 
the London Gazette, familiar to the sub-editors 
of to-day. These writers of news letters the 
Muddimans, the Bournes, the Butters, and 
the Dawkses may be said to have been 
their own reporters, sub-editors, printers, and 
publishers. 

When the newspapers, as distinct from books 
and letters, made their appearance under the 
names of postboys, mercuries, gazettes, diur- 
nals, and courants, they were largely one-man 
productions, and of staffs in the later sense of 
the word there were none. It was only as news- 
papers grew in size and influence, as the shackles 
of censorship and taxation were removed, and 
the materials and machinery of production 
became cheaper, more ample and more efficient, 
that staffs began to develop. As the system 
of reporting public events was introduced and as 
correspondence grew, the sub-editor made his 
appearance. Mr. Haslam Mills, in his centenary 
history of the Manchester Guardian, speaks of 
. Peterloo as the debut of the reporter in public 
life. That memorable occasion was the Reform 
demonstration on the site of the Free Trade 
Hall in Manchester, on Whit Monday, 1819, 
when a huge crowd was charged by yeomanry 
and many were killed and wounded. The re- 
porter was one Tyas, who was sent by The Times, 



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ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 5 

and in the melee he was arrested and thrown 
into prison. The Leeds Mercury, however, also 
had a reporter there, appropriately a Baines. 

The formal debut of the sub- edit or I cannot 
discover. Perhaps there was none. The work 
was doubtless performed, in the first stages, by 
the reporter or by the editor or proprietor of 
the paper which developed its news services to 
such an extent that some expert supervision 
became necessary at the centre. The editor of 
a growing paper would become more and more 
absorbed with the direction of policy, and 
with the writing of his leading articles; the 
reporter or reporters would be fully occupied 
with the collection and writing of their news 
matter; and the inflow of news and letters of 
all kinds from outside correspondents would 
grow with all this development. In such days 
it is easy to realize how attention would perforce 
be directed to the preparation of this mass of 
copy for print. At first the work of sub-editing 
was doubtless done as a part-time job by some 
versatile journalist capable of turning his hand 
to anything in the office, and it would be some 
time before a whole- time sub-editor appeared. 

To trace the emergence of the sub-editor is 
to study the whole process of the evolution of 
the newspaper. Most journalists have noted the 
appearance of newspapers of half a century ago, 
and the contrast with those of to-day is an easy 
mental picture. The solid pages of shorthand tran- 
scripts of public proceedings, largely Parliamen- 
tary and political, and long foreign dispatches 
in the important dailies, given under the most 



6 SUB-EDITING 

formal and modest of "label" headings, cause 
a smile now when so much art and effort are 
lavished on display. But those early days are 
priceless because in them was founded that 
tradition of independence and impartiality 
which won world-wide fame for the British 
Press. The early years may have been stodgy ; 
they were not sterile. Their methods have been 
superseded, but the principles then dominant 
are of permanent worth. 

Three reproductions of historic interest are 
given. The Daily Universal Register (Plate I) 
was started by John Walter on ist January, 
1785, and three years later it became The Times. 
The words "printed logographically " appear 
under the title of the Register on the left. This 
refers to a system of printing with logotypes, 
which were type units of words instead of the 
usual single letters. The system was patented, 
but was not a success. Jeremiah Garnett, 
whose name is printed under the title of the 
first issue of the Manchester Guardian (Plate III), 
was its first printer, business manager and 
reporter, and its editor from 1848 to 1861. 

Like everything else in a changing world the 
Press has changed. Popular education has al- 
tered the whole landscape ; the progress of science 
has sown romantic stories in myriad fields. 
To-day the outlook of an editor is wider, more 
intense, more vital, more personal than it was 
a century ago, but moral standards remain on 
record where they are not obeyed in practice. 

An American editor (Mr. A. L. Miller, of 
Michigan), in an address delivered at the Tenth 



ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 7 

Journalism Week in the University of Missouri, 
spoke well and clearly on this matter 

In this changing world, with its changed demands for news 
topics, news features, entertainment features, and the treat- 
ment of news its new standards and its new interest certain 
fundamentals do not change. Truth, decency, righteousness, a 
man's duty to government and society as proportioned to his 
influence these things do not change. And these things shall, 
if we are worthy of our calling, guide us as we go about our 
function as reporters and interpreters of this wonderland of a 
modern world. 

The rise of the great modern newspaper has 
produced, possibly as the most characteristic 
creation in its domestic economy, the skilled 
sub-editor. The latest fashions in news treat- 
ment, display, and make-up, require highly- 
trained and specialized sub-editors. When the 
question is asked "What is a sub-editor?" the 
answer is that he is the man who puts the news 
story into its acceptable form and its wonderful 
setting; converts the mass of undigested and 
ill-assorted matter into a connected, readable, 
and fascinating story by his constructive ability 
and the use of the many methods of display 
which he has at his command. In an age when 
a long and brilliantly written dispatch from a 
distinguished war correspondent was published 
in small type, and one fount throughout, under 
the uninspiring heading "Foreign Intelligence/' 
with paragraphs half a column long and no 
cross heads to break up the mass of type, the 
function of the sub-editor was doubtless less 
complicated ; to-day such a piece of news would 
be heralded and trumpeted by big and clamant 
headlines, enforced with introduction and in- 
dentations, its strongest passages thrown up in 



8 SUB-EDITING 

black type, and parts of its text cunningly 
steered around inset pictures. The craftsman 
who constructs and devises all this is the sub- 
editor, and his task is onerous. There is still 
the same need for careful checking of fact and 
name and quotation, for competent and erudite 
supervision, but added to these, which were the 
glory of a former generation, there are the 
demands of the new art of display. The process 
of sub-editing may be likened to what in biology is 
known as metabolism. Constructive metabolism 
is the process, in an organism or a single cell, by 
which nutritive material is built up into living 
matter ; destructive metabolism is the process by 
which protoplasm is broken down into simpler 
substances. The parallel is close and suggestive. 

The "New Journalism " 

With the advent of the "New Journalism" 
the development of the sub-editorial specialist 
became more and more rapid. The germ of the 
modern paper has been traced to Tit Bits. That 
may seem at first sight a crude theory, but there 
is an element of truth in it. George Newnes, 
who was not himself a journalist in the strict 
sense, and W. T. Stead, one of the most brilliant 
journalists in history, were thrown into associa- 
tion at that time. Newnes declared that his 
policy was to give the people what interested 
them and not what should interest them. He 
recognized that a generation was coming which, 
under the stimulus of the Education Act of 1870, 
would demand information and entertainment, 
and so he set himself to provide the popular 



ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS q 

reading required. Stead bent his energies to 
the wider journalism of the Pall Mall Gazette, 
where he -rode the whirlwind and directed the 
storm. These two men provided the creative 
impulse of the New Journalism. [Henry Lucy 
claimed that the founder of the New Journalism 
was Frederick Greenwood, who planned the 
old "P.M.G.," and "cut things short." Therein 
he exercised a true sub-editorial prerogative.] 
Ten years later Alfred Harmsworth began to 
write for magazines devoted to the young 
life of his day. Later he saw that Newnes had 
reached an immense new public, and Alfred 
Harmsworth's initial share in exploiting this 
great opportunity was Answers. From this 
sprang those great achievements in modern 
journalism which include the Daily Mail, the 
* Evening News, and the Daily Mirror. It is not 
my purpose to trace in detail the momentous 
changes in the newspaper world which these 
beginnings heralded, but simply to indicate 
that here we find the revolution which has called 
into being the sub-editor as we know him to-day. 
Lord Northcliffe once said to a new contributor 
to his magazines: "I have always given the 
public, not what I thought they ought to like, 
but what I know they will like and always have 
liked, though in a form they imagined to be 
new. Not that I would ever pander ,to low 
tastes. On the contrary, I encourage good, but 
popular, ones." (Mrs. C. N. Williamson's "Inky 
Way.") 

Northcliffe owed much to the talented lieuten- 
ants whom he gathered round him, but he 



io SUB-EDITING 

was the guiding star of the advance, and his 
views on the principles and practice of the New 
Journalism are of profound interest and im- 
portance. Speaking in 1920, he said ("North- 
cliffe," by Hamilton Fyfe) 

You could search the Victorian newspapers in vain for any 
reference to changing fashions, for instance. You could not 
find in them anything that would help you to understand the 
personalities of public men. We cannot get from tlicm a clear 
and complete picture of the times in which they were pub- 
lished, as one could from the Daily Mail. Before that was 
published journalism dealt with only a few aspects of life. 
What we did was to extend its purview to life as a whole. This 
was difficult. It involved the training of a new type of journal- 
ist. The old type was convinced that anything which would be 
a subject of conversation ought to be kept out of the papers. 

Did you know there was a sub-editor on The Times who once 
spiked an elephant ? Yes, an elephant escaped from a circus in 
South London and went careering about the streets. When 
this sub-editor received an account of the incident, he stuck 
it on the waste-file with other rejected copy. It was too 
interesting ! 

Most journalists of that time had that kind of mentality, 
though perhaps not quite so pronounced. Or else they thought 
that the way to sell a newspaper was to have first-class criti- 
cisms of books and pictures and music and plays. The only 
thing that will sell a newspaper in large numbers is news, and 
news is anything out of the ordinary. You know, of course, the 
great American editor's definition ? Dana said, " If a dog bites 
a man, that's nothing, but if a man bites a dog, that's news." 
In the Daily Mail we paid little or no attention to the dogs 
which bit men and the dogs didn't like it I mean the 
politicians, the bigwigs, the people who laid foundation stones 
and presided at banquets and opened Church bazaars. On the 
other hand, we gave the men who bit dogs such prominence as 
they never had before, and we were accused of lowering the 
dignity of journalism ! 

"Pivot of the Paper" 

In "Conditions of Work and Life of Journal- 
ists," issued by the International Labour Office, 
there is an excellent general survey of Press 
organization to-day. Having observed that 



ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS u 

after the editor comes the sub-editor, the writer 
quotes a description of the latter by G. Renard 
in "Les travailleurs du livre et du journal." 
This is so faithful a picture of the conditions in 
the generality of offices that I append it 

The sub-editor is the pivot of the paper. It is he who re- 
ceives and reads the articles and often orders them. In any 
case, it is he who deals with their publication, who requires, if 
need be, corrections and cuts to be made, who with the help of 
the makers-up, settles the order and the place in which the 
articles will appear, the type in which they will be set, the 
headlines and the illustrations which will accompany the text. 
He is obliged to remain until the moment at which the stop- 
press news arrives. If the newspaper appears in the morning, 
he is at work until 2 a.m. and he goes home as best he can. 
If the paper appears in the evening, he works until 2 o'clock 
in the afternoon, and he lunches when he finds time. His very 
fatiguing work is well enough paid, but he dies or retires fairly 
young. He is in touch with the reporters, who fear him, and 
with the printers, who carry out his orders. He is thus the 
liaison officer between the intellectual and the manual workers 
of the paper. 

Those who have knowledge of the various 
types of office in this country will see that the 
above does not apply in the whole of its details 
to all. It is interesting to compare it with a 
description of the copy readers (sub-editors) of 
America, given by Dr. Lyle Spencer in his book, 
"News Writing." The scene is the office of a 
metropolitan afternoon journal 

When a reporter appears on his first morning, he will find a 
big, desk-crowded room, deserted except for two or three 
silent workers reading and clipping papers at a long table. 
These men are known variously as the gas-house gang, the 
lobster shift, the morning stars, etc. They are the reporters 
and copy readers who read the morning papers for stories that 
may be re- written or followed up for publication during the day. 
They have been on duty since two or three in the morning and 
have prepared most of the material for the bull dog edition, 
the morning issue printed sometime between 7 and 10 a.m., 
and mainly re-written from the morning papers. On the 



12 SUB-EDITING 

entrance of the new reporter they will look up, direct him to a 
chair where he may sit until the city editor (news editor) comes, 
and pay no more attention to him. They, or others who take 
their places, edit all the news stories. They correct spelling and 
punctuation, re-write a story when the reporter has missed the 
main feature, reconstruct the lead, cut out the contradictions, 
duplications and libellous statements, and in general make the 
article conform to the length and style demanded by the paper ; 
and having carefully revised the story, they write the headlines 
and chute it to the composing room. 

On the whole, these men are the most unpopular on the force, 
since they are subject to double criticism, from the editors 
above them and the reporters whose copy they correct. The 
city editor and the managing editor hold them responsible for 
poor headlines, libellous statements, involved sentences, and 
errors generally; the reporters blame them for pruning down 
their stories, changing leads, and often destroying what they 
regard as the very point of what they had to say. 



The Team Spirit 

After this little transatlantic peep, let me 
return to this country. In the provinces the 
journalist is often called upon to act in the com- 
posite capacity of reporter-sub-editor, more 
particularly on the smaller weekly Press, which 
is unable to employ a whole-time sub-editor. 
My reporter friends may smile at my seeming 
apotheosis of the sub-editor, but this is a book 
on sub-editing. A study of the reporter would 
probably reveal a corresponding appreciation 
of the special and characteristic functions of 
that branch of journalism. An experienced 
journalist can in all likelihood -do satisfactory 
work in either sphere, and sometimes on small 
papers he will add to this leader and note writ- 
ing. The best sub-editor, as a rule, is one who 
has graduated in the arduous school of report- 
ing. With the team spirit that pervades a news- 
paper staff, there should be no justification for 



ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 13 

the gibe that the sub-editor is the natural 
enemy of the reporter, and is bent on the destruc- 
tion of his best efforts. A piece of good copy 
will always bring joy to the heart of the true 
sub-editor. It is sometimes urged that sub- 
editorial work becomes mechanical, and that 
the work of the reporter is more creative. The 
truth is that there is scope for creative work in 
both callings. The sub-editor not only puts the 
finishing touches to the stories he handles, but 
he often supplies essential ideas, purpose, and 
motif otherwise lacking. Hence, the complaint 
often heard that the reporter does not recognize 
in the printed product the story of his creation. 
Sometimes it is fortunate that he cannot. On 
the other hand some reporters have been heard 
to express gratitude to the sub-editor who saved 
them from blunders and made their stories more 
valuable. Sub-editing is not the mere manipu- 
lation of other- people's brains. At its best it is 
constructive and creative itself. While he has 
to spend much of his time in revision and cor- 
rection, the sub-editor often has to reconstruct 
the matter that comes to him, to give a story a 
new angle, to infuse life and interest into it, 
and to supply missing fact and feature which 
make the dry bones live. 

To come back to definition, the sub-editor is 
one of the most important "executives" on the 
staff, because he carries the delegated authority 
of the editor in deciding the form and content 
of the paper. In these days of amalgamation and 
syndication, when a whole chain of papers is 
modelled on a standard pattern, the sub-editorial 



14 SUB-EDITING 

work demanded is of increasing importance. 
It is not infrequently true that the paper 
is literally "made" by the sub-editors. In 
spite of the curtailment of the area of journal- 
istic employment by amalgamations and in- 
corporations which often, alas, spell suppres- 
sion there is still a demand for competent 
sub-editors. Many papers, even some of the 
most important, tend increasingly to rely on 
the Press agencies for their routine reports, and 
leave it to their sub-editors to cast them in the 
special mould they require. 

The work has its penalties. It is performed 
in most offices in a drab room, and those who 
toil at night are cut off from the currents of 
outside life from the theatre, from civic en- 
gagements, from social pleasures, and even from 
the mild dissipation of the wireless at home. 
If the nights are spent in strenuous work at the 
desk, the daylight hours are largely swallowed 
up in "reading the paper," and seeking other 
sources of information to keep the mind abreast 
of thought and action. The foreign sub-editor 
has a limitless field of study to fit him for his work. 

A life of isolation and intensive labour, 
redeemed only by the occasional morning game 
of golf or lawn tennis, or an hour of gardening, 
to brace the body and the brain for the nightly 
strain : a calling full of romance and zest to the 
born journalist, yet singularly dull and un- 
inspiring to the outside observer. When visitors 
are shown around the big office it is not the 
plain rooms which house the "brains depart- 
ment" which excite interest, but the linotype 



ORIGINS AND DEFINITIONS 15 

and autoplate, the giant press. The copy carrier 
is more studied and admired than the copy 
creator. There is nothing spectacular about a 
sub-editor. The desks at which the' troglodytes 
with horn-rimmed spectacles are bent amid a 
mass of manuscripts and stacks of reference 
books, claim polite attention but no real in- 
terest, but they are nevertheless the birthplace 
of the ideas and conceptions which the mechan- 
ical departments exist to serve and execute. 



CHAPTER II 
QUALIFICATIONS 

To tabulate the qualities essential to the ideal 
sub-editor is to present an imposing, not to 
say a forbidding, catalogue. It is a revelation 
to sit down and, from one's knowledge and ex- 
perience of a host of good craftsmen, to set out 
in a formal list all the gifts which make for 
success. If I were challenged as to whether I 
had ever met one man who combined all these 
qualities in one supreme sub-editorial person- 
ality I should have to confess that I had not. 
Such a man would indeed be an Admirable 
Crichton. It would be a counsel of perfection 
to postulate the possession of all these elements 
of character and training, even in embryo, as 
an indispensable condition of success. The 
whole may not, indeed does not, reside in the 
individual, but in a group they will all be found 
in the common stock, and a great paper is the 
product of many brains ; so that if the colloca- 
tion be not found in the unit, either by natural 
endowment or by acquirement, there is no need 
to despair. 

Here, then, is my analysis of the equipment 
of the complete sub-editor 

Sympathy ^ 

Insight I 

Breadth of view ? The "human" personality. 

Imagination I 

Sense of humourJ 

16 



QUALIFICATIONS 17 

Orderly and well-balanced mind, which implies level judg- 
ment, sense of perspective and proportion. 

Cool head ; ability to work in an atmosphere of hurry and 
excitement without getting flurried or incapable of 
accurate work. 

Quickness of thought coupled with accuracy. 

Conscientiousness, keenness and ruthlessness, rightly 
directed. 

The judicial faculty, i.e. well-informed common sense. 

Capacity for absorbing fact and fancy and imparting 
them in an acceptable manner. 

Adaptability the power, whatever be one's preposses- 
sions, of getting the reader-angle. 

Sound general education and wide general knowledge. 

In particular, a thorough grasp of questions and persons 
of the day political, industrial, etc. and close 
acquaintance with contemporary journalism and 
literature. 

Knowledge of the main principles of the law of libel, con- 
tempt and copyright. 

Ability to write in good English, and hence to ensure that 
the stories handled are converted into that currency. 

Physical fitness for a trying, sedentary life, which takes its 
toll of nerves, sight, and digestion. 

The team spirit a newspaper is one of the most striking 
products of co-operative enterprise and effort. 

I have, for the sake of emphasis, purposely 
omitted from the above list a supreme quali- 
fication. Without it the journalist will find him- 
self in the case of the rich young man in the 
parable, who was told "One thing thou lackest," 
and that the vital thing. In order to give sharper 
stress to it I name it separately. It is 

A PENETRATING SENSE OF NEWS VALUES 

At the risk of repetition I will say that the 
lack of some of the qualities enumerated may 
not bar a man from becoming a useful sub- 
editor; in fact the possession of some of them 
to an exceptional degree, with the absence of 
others, may lead to definite success. With a 

3 (G.2Z2I). 



i8 SUB-EDITING 

discriminating distribution of work in the sub- 
editorial room, a pooling of brain and capacity 
is secured, and the resources of a varied team are 
utilized to the greatest advantage. The absence 
from a staff of any who, like Mrs. Hardcastle's 
son Tony, are "the very pink of perfection/' 
does not mean that the same result cannot be 
achieved in combination. 

One other useful addition to the armoury I 
will mention, and that is the cultivation of a 
special subject. If you make yourself really 
proficient and expert in some subject it is 
surprising how often it will stand you in good 
stead. A few useful specializations can be 
named, such as : local government ; national and 
local finance; meteorology; antiquities (Roman 
Britain, etc.); heraldry; the peerage and social 
precedence; agriculture; aviation; astronomy. 
These are some that, in my personal observa- 
tion, have assisted men to "make good." 

The "human" qualities specified are specially 
important on papers which depend entirely on 
popular appeal. In a homily to his staff a well- 
known editor once said: "A good reporter can 
be discouraged beyond repair by the indifferent 
or perfunctory sub-editor whose deletion of 
human touches reduces a story to junk." It 
all depends on the class and character of the 
paper and the extent of the adaptability of the 
sub-editor. While some papers are for ever 
searching for the "human " story, the " sob stuff " 
which they rate so highly is treated with disdain 
by the more dignified, restrained and traditional 
Press, which has a different journalistic code, 



QUALIFICATIONS 19 

and definitely caters for a public that is not open 
to constant sensational appeal. 

A careful study of the various types of papers ; 
observation of their methods; comparison and 
contrast of the different systems of news treat- 
ment, use of type, and what may be com- 
pendiously described as "schools" of sub- 
editorial practice, are of the utmost value to 
the aspiring young journalist. In these days 
innovations are ever being tried, and yet one 
notices, as a refreshing change, a return some- 
times to older methods. Those who aim at 
work on a big paper must study styles and 
analyse methods. There can be no question 
that on the whole the tendency in British 
journalism is more and more to exalt the 
"human" story, and therefore the sub-editors 
who have the faculty of discerning, appreciat- 
ing, and rendering in the most vivid and appeal- 
ing form, this class of news will be the most 
likely to succeed. The coveted "human" touch 
is not a common possession; it is sufficiently 
rare to give those who are fortunate enough to 
possess it a sure path to advancement. 

Not a "Writing Man" 

First-class writing ability is not necessarily 
demanded. In the smaller offices of the country 
the sub-editor, if he exists as such, often has 
charge of a column of local notes or gossip, given 
under such headings as "By the Way," "Notes 
of the Week," " Local Topics," " What we Hear," 
"It is said that," "Wanted to Know," or some 
other catchy title to cover the miscellanea of 



20 SUB-EDITING 

the district. Similar in essence are the well- 
known "Talk of the Day" in the Evening 
News and the " Londoner's Diary " in the Evening 
Standard, which are composite productions. 
The celebrated "columnists" of America, whose 
value is their high individual merit, have an 
increasing counterpart in this country. The 
local papers to which I have referred, expect 
also leaders or leader notes from any member of 
the staff who shows leaning or capacity in that 
direction. 

In the larger offices, where work is more 
strictly defined, the sub-editor-is not regarded 
as a "writing man." He must, of course, be 
able to write introductions to news stories, and 
summaries of unwieldy documents that contain 
points that are worth giving. There is in some 
offices a sub-editor who is specifically known as 
the "re-write" man, who has to reconstruct, in 
the style of the paper, stories that come from 
various sources. But for the work of a sub- 
editor in the ordinary way on a big paper the 
chief need is a clear, terse, unadorned style of 
writing the terser the better for the presen- 
tation of fact and news. The "writing men," 
properly so called, are, of course, the leader 
writers, the contributors of special articles, and 
the descriptive reporters. 

Though not primarily a writer, the sub-editor 
must be a good judge of style in others and a 
keen critic of grammar and taste. He may be 
merely a poetaster or a literary philanderer, but 
he is able to recognize good literature when he 
sees it, although the faculty of great writing is 



QUALIFICATIONS 21 

not his. One may revel in Shakespeare, enjoy 
Tennyson, and admire Bridges, and understand 
the subtle differences in style and workmanship 
which mark their respective geniuses, without 
being capable of such exalted work, and this 
type of critical power is a sub-editorial requisite. 
Fine writing has to be directed to its proper 
channel, and its real objective in the scheme of 
the paper. The opening of a local hospital by 
some county dignitary demands "newsy" hand- 
ling and not ornate writing, and the corre- 
spondent who essays the latter must be reduced 
to correct form. On the contrary, the record 
of a great national ceremonial calls for adequate 
literary effort, and the sub-editor not only gives 
the writer full scope but backs him up with his 
best display. 

Education: A Half-Truth 

There is a growing recognition of the value 
of specialized education for journalism in the 
chief countries of the world, in spite of the 
familiar old argument that journalists are born 
and not made, and that the only real training 
ground is the newspaper office and work itself. 
The persistence of this objection is due to the 
fact that it is a half-truth. The catalogue of 
qualifications given at the beginning of this 
chapter indicates clearly that some of the most 
important gifts for success in journalism are 
those of natural endowment, and this is not 
disputed by the most ardent advocates of voca- 
tional training; but the argument that natural 
talent, aptitude and genius require, and profit 



22 SUB-EDITING 

by, technical training, with a proper cultural 
background or basis, appears to me unanswer- 
able. I would contend that the education of a 
journalist should be the best attainable in the 
general sense and the most efficient in the tech- 
nical sense. The United States of America leads 
the way with its schools of journalism which 
are associated with a great number of the 
universities, colleges, and high schools in that 
country. But to imagine that the university 
graduate, as such, is qualified for journalism, 
still less for sub-editing in particular, is a grave 
error. I have seen many a man come straight 
to the sub-editor's room from his university 
and, after a brief struggle with work which 
demanded qualities and training he did not 
possess, fade away, a transient and embarrassed 
phantom. I have seen others who also came 
direct from the classic seats of learning to this 
work and, because they had the instinct and 
flair for it, they succeeded and did so more 
quickly and more emphatically because of the 
educational "pull" they had at the start. The 
latter were men of quick adaptability and 
ready mind, adept, as journalists should be, in 
mastering new subjects, and brilliant exceptions 
to the rule that sub-editorial work demands long 
training in the smaller office or the vocational 
class or preferably both. 

The late W. L. Courtney, in "The Passing 
Hour," wrote 

In journalism no one has time to teach any one else the only 
way to learn journalism is to practise it; but if you are under 
such a master as Sir Edward [Lawson, of the Daily Telegraph} 
you are all the time insensibly taking it in through eyes and 



QUALIFICATIONS 23 

ears, unconsciously, or almost unconsciously, assimilating the 
principles, learning what to avoid, what to utilize besides 
attaining to a certain attitude or standard from which to 
estimate the value of the materials before you. . . He [my 
chief] realized that coming as I did from Oxford, I should be 
only too likely to be something of a pedant. But he was very 
kind to my priggishness, though now and then he would slyly 
smile. 

All this points a moral. Training is necessary 
for the average candidate. For the ordinary 
young person, with no special equipment or 
initial advantage, there is a poor prospect of 
learning the job in the rush and tumble of a 
big office. In these "crowded hours of glorious 
life" the actors in the daily drama have no time 
to give elementary instruction to raw beginners, 
whose jumping-off ground should be the pro- 
vincial newspaper, which gives the very best 
training for the larger sphere of Fleet Street. 

Training in Provinces 

Many years of personal experience in the 
provinces, both on weekly and daily papers, 
compel me to impress upon the beginner the 
advantage of "serving his time" in the country. 
There are the great provincial dailies, with 
familiar and honoured names, known all over 
the country; the important county weeklies 
and the smaller papers of the city and the 
urban district, many of which maintain a high 
standard of policy and production. It was a 
theory of Gladstone's that the provincial Press 
was better informed and a truer reflex of the 
public opinion of the country than the London 
Press, but this was somewhat discounted by the 
shrewd observation of an American commentator 



24 SUB-EDITING 

that the cause of the statesman's preference was 
the fact that he was criticized by the more 
independent national organs of London and 
flattered by the newspapers of the provinces. 

The greatest enterprise in the collection of 
news is shown by the provincial papers. Those 
established in the Midlands, the North, and the 
West have an advantage in time in the early 
hours of the morning over their London rivals 
which they use to the full in getting late news 
"scoops." The extra hour or two open to the 
paper which can go to press later than the 
London dailies, with their handicap of transport, 
sometimes mean the receipt of late important 
news, which is rushed into the last editions 
while the London papers are already printed 
and on the rail for their distant destinations. 
These chances of news "beats" are eagerly ex- 
ploited by the late sub-editors of Manchester, 
Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Ply- 
mouth, Bristol, Cardiff, and other big provincial 
centres. An opportunity of beating Fleet Street 
is not to be missed. The true craftsman always 
takes pride in his work, and thus the jpunalist 
finds a never-failing fascination in seeing the 
product of his brain and enterprise in the printed 
page. This stands largely true to-day, although 
the economic outlook of journalism is changing, 
and the personal and independent proprietor- 
ships of the "good old days" are fast succumb- 
ing to chains and groups dominated by cor- 
porations of financiers. These companies do not, 
like the old type of proprietor, regard journal- 
ism as a craft ; to them it is an investment for 



QUALIFICATIONS 25 

dividend purposes, and they "have no body to 
be kicked or soul to be damned." Still the old 
pride of the journalist clings to life, and at any 
rate the new regime has brought an improvement 
of salaries. 

Work in the provinces gives a thorough 
drilling in all-round journalism, and it is from 
this source that the personnel of Fleet Street is 
largely recruited. The best men in the London 
rank and file have come from the country. Hav- 
ing gone through the mill there and been really 
grounded in the elements of the craft, they have 
a sure foundation on which to build a career. 
To have plodded through early years of strenu- 
ous toil in the country, learned all about Local 
Government and industries; to have mastered 
the whole technique of reporting in its manifold 
and devious forms, is a lifelong advantage, and 
when the sub-editorial desk is reached the 
knowledge accumulated, and the comprehension 
of the reporter's job in getting the story and 
transmitting it, are of the greatest value. If there 
is a royal road, this is it. 

University Men 

A sub-editor leaping from the university to 
the copy desk, competent for the work, is a 
phenomenon. The vast majority of those who 
are producing the great newspapers of to-day 
have been trained in the school of. practical 
experience. Doubtless some famous editors, 
brilliant correspondents and leader writers have 
arrived in the newspaper arena in a sudden and 
startling manner, but the sub-editorial desk is 



26 SUB-EDITING 

not often the landing place of the prodigies. Sir 
William Beach Thomas, in the opening paragraph 
of his book "A Traveller in News/' says 

The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge are not good 
schools of journalism, it is said. One of the most modern of 
newspaper proprietors compounded a list of editors, in which 
only one Oxford or Cambridge name appeared. Mr. Geoffrey 
Dawson, a Fellow of All Souls, one of Lord Milner's famous 
" Kindergarten" in South Africa, saved the universities' bacon 
by editing The Times under successive proprietors. But a list 
of those journalists who used to be called "Specials" would 
give a very different tally. It is probable that school and 
university life breeds a native distaste for the work of editing in 
an office, while it prompts to a life of stir and travel. 

It would be a tempting inquiry to look into 
the biographies of great journalists to test these 
theories, but a few instances must suffice. 
John Thadeus Delane, who became editor of 
The Times at the age of 23, had left Oxford only 
a year when he took control and settled down 
to a practical routine at Printing House Square. 
He exercised the most vigilant supervision over 
the work of his staff, and is said to have read 
the complete paper, either in galley or page 
proof, before he left the office every morning. 
Other Oxford men spring readily to mind, three 
of them associated with that stalwart organ the 
Manchester Guardian. Mr. C. P. Scott, who 
joined it in 1871 and was editor until recently, 
when he retired and was given the freedom of 
Manchester, was privately educated, but, though 
of Nonconformist stock, he obtained admission 
to Corpus Christi, Oxford, and left with a first 
in -"Greats." He obtained two of his most 
talented subordinates from the same source. 
William Thomas Arnold became chief leader 



QUALIFICATIONS 27 

writer. He was a specialist in Roman pro- 
vincial administration, but became, as Mr. 
Haslam Mills says ("The Manchester Guardian," 
a century history, 1921), "a practical, serviceable 
journalist of the small hours . . . the journalist 
spoiled the historian, but the historian perfected 
the journalist." Then there was C. E. Montague, 
one of the chief spokesmen of the Guardian, a 
charming writer on politics and plays, whom 
Mr. Scott haled from Oxford. To leave Man- 
chester, Mr. J. A. Spender, an Oxford man, 
became editor at 24 of the Eastern Morning 
News, Hull, and in London for many years his 
leaders in the old green Westminster Gazette 
(now, alas, no more) held great sway in the 
political world. All these were university men, 
great journalists, but not sub-editors. 

W. T. Stead was editor at 22, but was not a 
university man. He received his only formal 
education at a Nonconformist school in Wake- 
field, ending at the age of 14. If ever there was 
a born journalist, he was one. Of a different 
school, George Augustus Sala was equally emin- 
ent. Northcliffe left school and faced life at 15, 
but told Hamilton Fyfe, who has written an 
intimate study of him, that he often regretted 
that he had renounced what would have been 
of immense value to him, namely, a university 
education. 

He believed fervently in the exaggerated value of a univer- 
sity education to young men entering journalism. I once put 
it to him that nearly all the most famous journalists of his 
time had succeeded without having had this advantage. 1 
cited Greenwood, Stead, Garvin, Wickham Steed, Massing- 
ham, A. G. Gardiner. "Yes, yes/' he cried, "but they were 
men bound to make their way to the front. I am not thinking 



28 SUB-EDITING 

about geniuses they can take care of themselves. .But think 
of the social value of having been at a university. It is like 
being able to ride. Every young man who wants to get on 
ought to be able to ride and to talk French." 

Northcliffe once confided to Tom Clarke: "I 
have suffered from one disability throughout 
my career; you would never guess it. I suffer 
from the fact that I was not at Oxford. You 
have a son? Send him to a good public school 
and then to Oxford. But not for three years. 
That is too much. One year is quite enough. 
It is a great asset. It means such a lot to a man. 
It gives him in his impressionable years that 
foundation of poise among his fellow creatures 
which can be got nowhere else." Commenting 
on this, Mr. A. P. Nicholson says that, although 
Northcliffe may have pretended to hanker after 
an Oxford experience, he would have rebelled 
against its influence, for his was the culture of 
life and experience. 

Lord Beaverbrook published an article some 
years ago on journalism as a career, and in it 
he discussed the value of academic training. 
He gave a list of London editors, with details of 
their education, and declared that the inevit- 
able conclusion to be drawn was "that a public 
school and university course is no advantage 
to the journalist who aspires to be an editor, 
and may possibly be an actual hindrance . . . 
The youth who aspires to journalism should 
begin at the very bottom rung of the ladder, 
and, starting as a reporter, should go through 
the whole weary round of sub-editing before 
he can hope to be a news-editor. For not only 
will he learn in this way the whole technique of 



QUALIFICATIONS 29 

his profession, but he will be in constant touch 
with the actual raw material of his trade the 
news." 

Memory a Great Asset 

I am diverging from my theme the vital 
necessity of education to a sub-editor. C. E. 
Montague hit the mark when he said : " The one 
thing that disables almost all young journalists 
is that their general education has not been 
liberal and has stopped in the middle." I would 
advise wide and systematic reading, all directed 
to equipment for the sub-editor's tasks. Un- 
doubtedly one of the greatest assets is a reten- 
tive memory. To be able to recall events, and 
associations arising out of the news of the 
moment, is very serviceable. What did an 
eminent man say on a given subject, not in 
1863, but a year or two ago? in what speech 
did a certain important passage occur? is so- 
and-so alive or dead? what was the last 
"previous disaster"? these and many similar 
questions arise in the night's work, and the 
memory which can give the clue to the answer 
is invaluable. The careful reading of one's own 
paper is absolutely necessary. The sub-editor, 
of all men on the staff, must be thoroughly well 
primed in current news and especially in the 
contents of the paper he serves. When he goes 
to his desk he should have a close knowledge of 
what was in the issue for that day. It follows 
that those engaged in general sub.-editing should 
be among the best read men in the field of news. 
The chief sub-editor has to concentrate on this. 



30 SUB-EDITING 

His test comes sometimes at the editorial con- 
ference when a searching question is put from 
the chair at a moment's notice as to the why, 
when, and how of things on the schedule of the 
day's news, and what, if anything, has already 
been given on a certain subject. 

The sad fact has to be admitted that in some 
offices the work of the sub-editors is inadequately 
realized. The leading men, who make the ap- 
pointments, have sometimes themselves had no 
practical experience of sub-editing and do not 
appreciate the arduousness, difficulty, and ex- 
treme responsibility of the work. Many report- 
ers declare emphatically that they would never 
submit themselves to the tyranny of the sub- 
editor's post. Yet this section of the editorial 
staff is of the first importance. It is no exaggera- 
tion to say that a newspaper is made or marred 
in the sub-editor's room. We see complaints in 
the technical Press of the dearth of good sub- 
editors. Writing in 1926, Mr. Walter Morley, 
chief sub-editor of the Manchester Evening News, 
said: " 'Good sub-editors are so hard to get,' 
sighed an editor within my hearing the other 
day. They are. The real first-rate man is 
almost as rare as sunshine in Manchester. He 
is in demand in every newspaper office. He can 
command a good salary and splendid conditions, 
and his work is as important and interesting as 
any in the profession of journalism, offering 
opportunities for initiative and brilliance." Yet 
he notes a growing reluctance on the part of the 
younger men to sit at the sub-editor's desk, 
because they hear "grisly stories of the boredom 



QUALIFICATIONS 31 

and drudgery of it all/ 1 "I agree," adds Mr. 
Morley, "that the 'good' reporter does not 
necessarily make a 'good' sub-editor, for the 
qualities demanded are different ; but there can 
be no doubt that many a man who is regarded 
as a reporter of no special mark would succeed 
brilliantly as a sub-editor." A deputy chief 
sub-editor, commenting on Mr. Morley's article, 
argued that one of the reasons for the rarity of 
good sub-editors was the lack of appreciation of 
their work in high quarters. "It is not to be 
wondered at," he said, "that a good reporter 
who would make a good sub-editor would think 
twice before forsaking the comparatively in- 
dolent life in the reporter's room for the rush 
and responsibility of the sub's room at the same 
salary." Not long ago I heard it stated (possibly 
with a tinge of exaggeration) that a famous 
newspaper was produced with an "effective" 
sub-editorial staff of four out of a total of 
fourteen, meaning that the other ten were 
"passengers." The fact is that a man must 
love his work if he is to succeed. Perfunctory 
work simply will not do in these exacting days ; 
a live paper has no room for men who are not 
keen and enthusiastic. The instance just quoted 
shows the shortage of smart sub-editors. 

For a reporter to become a sub-editor is un- 
doubtedly promotion. This view is much more 
emphatic than that expressed by that great 
provincial journalist, Lord Russell of Liverpool. 
He was consulted by Mr. J. Hall Richardson, 
of the Daily Telegraph, then a beginner, and 
wrote: "As to the rival claims of reporting and 



32 SUB-EDITING 

sub-editing I scarcely like to advise you, but I 
suppose the latter is considered promotion. 
At the same time, were I you I should like a 
little of the other experience first, especially if 
you can get into the Gallery." 

Quite a sound piece of advice. Mr. Richardson, 
speaking from his long experience, says ("From 
the City to Fleet Street") 

Sub-editors in those days had certainly not come into their 
own. They were little more than correctors of the Press, con- 
densing, and seldom re- writing ; they certainly did not originate. 
Remember they had no telephone with which to call up a 
string of sources of information from which they could compile 
a first-hand account. They have advanced to pre-eminence in 
the economy of a newspaper office, and the outside men are 
nowadays mere slaves to their commands: they can cut, re- 
cast, remodel, elaborate, or what is worse than all, cancel and 
leave out altogether the results of the painful labours of a 
reporter or descriptive writer, who dares not complain. 

If, in fairness to Mr. Richardson, I quote him 
again on the subject, I hope I shall not be 
helping to aggravate the dearth of good sub- 
editors. In this book I indicate sufficiently, I 
hope, to attract the minds and stimulate the 
ambitions of young journalists the fascination 
and responsibility of the work and the not in- 
considerable payment made for it. Here is the 
extract: "Taking everything into consideration, 
if you wish to see life to enjoy journalism 
shun sub-editing, go reporting or special corre- 
sponding and put as many miles between your- 
self and the office as possible." 

An Admiring Tribute 

One of the most striking tributes to sub- 
editors as a class that I have come across is 



QUALIFICATIONS 33 

contained in a delightful chapter, entitled "A 
Fool i' the Forest," contributed by Mr. Edward 
Shanks to "The Book of Fleet Street." He 
says 

The business of news-gathering perplexes me, and, as for the 
business of so presenting the news that has been gathered that 
the public may read it, I hardly like to let my mind dwell upon 
it at all. Of all created beings I think it is the sub-editor who 
most commands my timorous admiration. The news is thrown 
at him in huge miscellaneous masses, which, but for his labours, 
would kill the reader stone-dead with mental indigestion. He 
has to cocfc this mass, having first trimmed it into reasonable 
proportions, keeping one eye on the probable accuracy of the 
facts as stated, another on the law of libel, another on various 
other considerations which crop up from time to time, such as 
the law relating to elections, and yet a fourth, which must be 
no less vigilant than the other three, upon the clock. Sub- 
editors, when I meet them, seem to have only two eyes just 
like other people ; where they keep the other two I cannot say, 
but I know they must have them. 

In addition to the multi-ocular power with 
which they are thus credited, sub-editors who 
succeed have what some one has vaguely called 
"an extraordinary instinct for arriving at 
results." It must surely be the "sixth-sense" 
to which Julian Ralph refers in his book "The 
Making of a Journalist " 

This sixth sense of the journalist is by no means akin to the 
news sense. A newspaper man must have the news sense in 
order to distinguish what is worth publishing, and to know 
what proportions to give to the various incidents which make 
up a newspaper, if he be an editor, or which constitute the 
story he is writing, if he be a reporter. He can get along very 
well without the sixth sense, which is a most mysterious 
quality or instinct, and which many possess ; but no man can 
command or rely upon. It seizes a man with irresistible force 
and leads him to what he seeks. Sometimes it even takes him 
to the seat of news which he is not seeking, and of the existence 
of which he has had no inkling. It frequently impels him to 
act against his judgment and to do things which he feels to be 
abusrd, and yet is obliged to persist in until the reward comes 
with a shock like lightning from a cloudless sky. 

4 (G.2I2I) 



34 SUB-EDITING 

Ralph gives instances of the operation of this 
instinct from his own busy life as a special 
reporter. They might be paralleled by equally 
veracious cases in the life of a sub-editor 
physically sedentary, but mentally the most 
active. 

Many books about journalism are too much 
concerned with the taverns of Fleet Street and 
its environs to give a true picture of modern 
conditions. The old Bohemianism has largely 
disappeared, much to the regret of many 
artistic and congenial souls, but journalism, 
like every other calling, is falling into line with 
the canons of up-to-date business efficiency. 
Fortunately the spirit of comradeship which 
animated the social circles of a past generation 
can, and does, survive, though in a less romantic 
setting, and it is all to the good that it is 
divorced from the drinking obbligato that proved 
the undoing of so many lovable and brilliant 
fellows. Salaries and v conditions have vastly 
improved, and the follies of improvidence are 
more widely realized. The new outlook is de- 
structive of one of the most insidious foes to a 
successful career in journalism. 

The Place of Women 

A word about women in journalism. I use 
the word "journalism" without reference to 
sex, because the test of practice reveals that 
good work is done in many branches of the 
profession by women equally with men. In the 
agreements which the National Union of 
Journalists has made with the proprietors' 



QUALIFICATIONS 35 

organizations in London and the provinces 
there is no differentiation of sex as regards 
salary scales, hours, and conditions of work. 
A journalist is a journalist and the equality of 
opportunity is complete. Nevertheless the 
woman journalist is in many offices still a rarity. 
There are women who have done most of the 
work of a newspaper and done it extremely 
well the "shorthand typist," the assistant in 
the library, the editor's secretary, the social 
contributor, the reporter, the special corre- 
spondent, the editor of the women's page, and 
the dramatic critic. But the curious fact is that 
women sub-editors are still so rare. There may 
be a few in the provinces, but there are scarcely 
any in Fleet Street at the present time, so far 
as I am aware. Women have proved their 
qualifications for all the posts I have mentioned ; 
why they have failed to invade the sub-editorial 
"den" is a question which lies outside the 
province of my discussion. Proved worth, 
ability and staying power are essential, ,and 
possibly it is too early for women to have 
graduated so far. There is no deliberate "ban" 
on women sub-editors, so far as I can learn, 
and the question of fair play or otherwise does 
not arise. If women demonstrated their fitness 
for this exacting work the opportunity would 
not be denied them, and the minor obstacles 
which suggest themselves to their introduction 
to a department, hitherto monopolized by men, 
would not prove insurmountable, but the tests 
imposed are severe. 

I am reminded of a prophecy on this subject, 



36 SUB-EDITING 

which has n6t yet been fulfilled. It was made 
many years ago when, under Northcliffe's in- 
spira^tion, women like Lady Diana Cooper and 
Lady Clifton were engaged to write. Charles 
Hands, who in those days on the Daily Mail 
played many parts as reporter, special writer, and 
war correspondent, had a high opinion of their 
work and its value, and committed himself to this 
prediction, recorded in Tom Clarke's "Diary" 

In ten years, and maybe before, you will see a revolution 
. . . more women than ever in newspaper work, reporting, 
sub-editing, news editing, even editing. It's bound to come. 
All the advantages are with women. Firstly, they don't drink. 
Secondly, they are more in touch with the realities of life . . . 
They are better judges; they have more taste; they are more 
human. Look at their knowledge and experience of the home. 
Their outlook is really wider than that of men. 

This may be true in some respects, but the 
ten years expired long ago, and the revolution 
has not yet come. 

Views of Three Chiejs 

My judgment as to qualifications is confirmed 
by three men of great experience, each of whom 
has been chief sub-editor of a great popular 
daily. They have given me a statement of six 
essential qualifications which they always seek 
in their staffs, and as it is impossible to obtain 
higher authorities on this matter I give their 
views in full, with the proviso that in each case 
the outlook is that of an organ of the new 
popular type * 

SIX ESSENTIAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR A SUB-EDITOR 

I 

i. ACCURACY, ACCURACY, AND AGAIN ACCURACY 1 This I put 
right in the forefront. The conscientious journalist has as great 



QUALIFICATIONS 37 

a moral responsibility to the public he informs and educates as 
to his editor and proprietor. Therefore he must supply facts. 
Inaccuracies and misstatements are a blot on his escutcheon, 
and he should exercise the utmost care, by verification in 
books of reference and by recourse to other sources of informa- 
tion which will be ready to his hand, to ensure absolute 
accuracy. 

2. A KEEN SENSE OF NEWS AND NEWS VALUES. He must be 
able to appraise almost at a glance the relative importance oi 
any piece of news that comes before him. Not infrequently 
news that will shake the nation is flashed over the wires in half a 
dozen words. He must bring his experience and his imagina- 
tion into play. At the outset of his career he will be spoon fed 
that is to say, he will be directed by an experienced chief sub- 
editor, who will instruct him in regard to the space a piece of 
news should occupy and as to its method of treatment. As his 
own art and knowledge develop he will gain facility in forming 
judgments of his own. If he thinks that in the hurry and rush 
of work his chief has missed the significance of any item of 
news he should not hesitate to state his view and the reasons 
for it. Many a blunder has been averted by an alert junior 
sub-editor. 

3. THE CULTIVATION OF THE FACULTY FOR SEEING AND 
SEIZING ON THE DOMINATING FACT IN AN ITEM OF NEWS. This 
should be brought to the top of the story not left to the last 
paragraph. Take as an illustration a memorable meeting at 
the Carlton Club. The all-important event the ballot came 
at the close of the meeting. Its outcome brought about the 
fall of a government. This was the dominating fact, and in all 
well sub-edited accounts of the meeting the result of the ballot 
was disclosed in the opening paragraph. This was the news 
peg on which all the rest depended. 

4. THE ABILITY TO WRITE HEADINGS WHICH TELL THE 
READER AT A GLANCE WHAT HAS HAPPENED. Heading writing 
is a gift for which some sub-editors have a genius and others 
have not. Headings should convey the news in a nutshell. 
They should focus the predominant features of the article over 
which they stand. The sub-editor need not hesitate to intro- 
duce a spice of humour on occasion when the news lends itself 
to such treatment. The reader will appreciate it. 

5. A SOUND GENERAL EDUCATION. The first class sub-editor 
must be a compendium of useful knowledge a veritable 
human encyclopaedia. Therefore he should be at the utmost 
pains to cultivate his memory. The most attractive news is 
the unusual news. The sub-editor cannot draw a distinction 
unless he stores his mind with events which have occurred in 
the past. He must know in order that he may exercise his 
functions as a sub-editor adequately and well. Experience and 
the ability to profit by it, and a good memory : these are the 



38 SUB-EDITING 

passports to the senior posts in a newspaper office. They are 
never attained by a mere humdrum, unimaginative adherence 
to technical routine. 

6. LAST BUT NOT LEAST LUCIDITY. Cultivate a simple and 
direct style of English. Avoid complicated and involved 
sentences. Never puzzle the reader he hasn't time to dis- 
entangle a maze of words. Two short sentences are often 
better than a long one. As you should write legibly for the 
compositor who also has no time to waste so you should 
make your meaning crystal clear to the reader and for the 
same reason. 

II 

Sub-editors are mostly born they are rarely made. Chief 
among their needed qualities I would place 

THE CRITICAL FACULTY. Good sub-editors should be relent- 
less critics and possessed of a passion for accuracy. Written 
statements are not necessarily facts, and not all deductions are 
sound. A cool, clear brain must apply to them the acid test of 
knowledge, or in the absence of knowledge a reference book. 
This implies 

A WIDE RANGE OF READING, a mastery of modern politics 
(home and foreign), and an intelligent acquaintance with the 
latest scientific, commercial, and artistic developments. In 
short, a capacity to keep abreast of the times. He should also 
fyave 

A "NosE FOR NEWS'* a sensitive instinct for seeing a good 
news story below the surface where others only see a welter of 
words. 

A CONSTRUCTIVE MIND is essential. There must be ability to 
present news on well-defined, orderly lines, with a sense of pro- 
portion, balance, and form. Modern newspapers are built up 
on a plan. Journalistic jerry-builders are not wanted in Fleet 
Street. 

ALERTNESS OF MIND AND A GREAT CAPACITY FOR WORK also 
mark out a successful sub-editor. Decisions have to be made 
quickly and work done at high speed. Journalists who are 
naturally lethargic should avoid the sub-editor's room as they 
would the plague. 

ADAPTABILITY is essential. London newspapers are as varied 
in their aims and methods as the sects in Christendom. A sub- 
editor should master all styles of journalism heavy and light, 
popular and prosaic. He should be equipped to enter any 
office. 

A command of good English, a gift of pr6cis writing, the 
saving grace of humour, a sense of the dramatic also form part 
of the stock in trade of a sub-editor. And if he is a " dry " sub- 
ject, so much the better for him and his chief. 



QUALIFICATIONS 39 

in 

The good sub-editors on this newspaper have these qualifica- 
tions in common 

1. They are safe. 

2. They write simple, accurate English. 

3. Their headlines tell the story, and each cross-heading 

mentions a fact. 

4. Their handwriting is clear, and causes few printers' 

errors. 

5. They can deal quickly with a new story, doing essentials 

first. 

6. They keep in mind the bpecial requirements of the 

paper. 

These are all common-sense needs, and most of them will 
cause no trouble to a keen young man. Simple English the 
very simple English of our picture papers clear handwriting, 
with all names of people and places written in capitals, 
reading one's own paper through carefully every day to keep 
abreast of its policy ; these are the ABC of sub-editing. 

The one great difficulty is to become a safe man. There is 
no dodging the fact that the only safe sub-editor is one who 
has had years of experience. ("Thank God," say I, "otherwise 
we might be shot into the street at 40.") 

You must learn sub-editing in the sub-editor's room, get to 
know the various traps, and watch for them every minute of 
the night. 

The worst traps are 

LIBELS. You must get the books on the libel law and see 
exactly how a newspaper stands. 

SLIPS OF THE PEN. Omitted words, split infinitives, saying 
dollars when you mean pounds, are common errors in a rush. 
A morning paper recently led off its front page with the heading 
"Warships Rushed to Cairo." 

SLIPS OF JUDGMENT. Overdoing a police court case because 
it is difficult to condense. Giving too much of the prosecution 
and not a fair report of the defence. Cutting down late news 
too much, and exaggerating the value of early news. 

So much for warnings. Here arc some hints on what to do 
now 

1 . Read the chief papers carefully. I have read The Times 
every day for twenty years and found this steady reading an 
enormous help in cultivating knowledge of men and affairs. 

2. Spend a day or so in a good reference library. A sub- 
editor who does not know where to look things up is a waster of 
precious time. 



40 SUB-EDITING 

3. Remember the chief popular interests are not books and 
philosophy, but 

Women, 
Food, and 
Money. 

4. Cater for the lazy man. Give him brief, comprehensive 
headlines, and brief, comprehensive summary introductions to 
reports. 

5. The following sub-editors will never lack work, and will 
be prized almost like successful tipsters 

A lively but safe police court "sub." 

A good foreign "sub." 

A good copy-taster (man who reads all the news coming in 
and marks its value, with all necessary instructions to the 
sub-editors). 

These men sell their brains in a rising market. 



CHAPTER III 
A SURVEY OF THE WORK 

THE quantity and intricacy of sub-editorial 
work in the provinces vary with the status of the 
paper, from the small weekly to the great daily, 
sometimes national in its scope. Every paper, 
small as well as great, is the repository of the 
effusions of many outside correspondents, in 
addition to the people scattered about the con- 
stituency who send news, such as the village 
grocer who, in exchange for a free copy of the 
.paper, will send paragraphs, often written on 
sugar paper. There are rural poets who claim 
to be heard, local historians and antiquaries, 
the growers of record marrows and potatoes, 
the auditors of the first cuckoo, the catchers of 
the biggest fish one and all write to the editor, 
and all their productions need trimming and 
revising by somebody: the editor, sub-editor, 
or reporter. It not infrequently happens that 
slovenly copy obscures real news and good 
features, and the journalist seizes on these 
wherever they are to be found. Thus, even in 
the small office, without a regular "blue pencil" 
staff, the sub-editorial function must be per- 
formed by someone. These casual contributions 
by industrious scribes are not altogether un- 
welcome, especially in slack times, when there 
are columns to be filled and there is nothing 
much happening. There is always the final 

41 



42 SUB-EDITING 

resort to stereo columns such as "Home Hints," 
"Gardening Notes," "The Latest Fashions," 
etc., but matter written by a contributor, and 
having some local significance, is much to be 
preferred. 

The importance of what the novelists call 
"local colour" has to be recognized. A very 
strong element in English public life is local 
patriotism, and the local paper is the exponent 
and the guardian of this quality of the public 
mind. Often it has been proved in the experience 
of competitive journalistic invaders of provincial 
territories that local pride, possibly prejudice, 
is a solid thing to run up against. The people 
have grown accustomed to their own style of 
journalism by generations of usage, and they 
do not readily accept the newer and more sen- 
sational standards of " chain " newspapers. Sub- 
editors, and other members of the staff, who 
have special local knowledge and training, and 
enjoy greater security of tenure than is to be 
found in many Fleet Street offices, interpret 
the local outlook correctly and work instinc- 
tively to the approved pattern. The judgment 
and experience of such 'men are of undoubted 
value to the older local papers when they are 
faced with the assault of the invader, though 
some of them are lured from their allegiance 
by tempting contracts offered by the new- 
comers. The fact remains that papers steeped 
in local tradition and accustomed to catering 
for a particular public can, if they are efficiently 
run, withstand the pressure of the "syndicated" 
Press. In earlier days, when a subsidiary of 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 43 

Northcliffe Newspapers, Ltd., the projectors of 
a chain of papers all over the country, acquired 
the Leicester Mail, the controllers declared: 
"We believe we shall succeed in keeping the 
strong local affection for the paper, as the 
change over will mean a new and well-fitting 
suit for an old friend of the people of Leicester." 
The central editorial policy, as directed from 
London, was to ensure that the provincial 
papers were supplied with all the national 
news and suitable features, but to lay special 
emphasis on the importance of giving the 
greatest prominence to local news. National 
news was not given precedence over local 
affairs. It was claimed that provincial readers 
were giving sure indications of appreciation of 
the new journalism. The experiment, an ex- 
tremely interesting one, has still to be tried out. 
My own early experience confirms me in the 
views I have expressed. For five years I was 
articled to reporting on a weekly paper in Kent, 
which was built up to a considerable degree of 
prosperity by an energetic man who had himself 
risen from office boy to editor of a smaller 
weekly, and then started as proprietor in the 
larger town. He had an uncanny sense of local 
values, and amazing energy. In addition to 
managing the business side of the concern, he 
did most of the "subbing" and note writing 
himself, and I vividly remember the sense of 
wonder and respect with which I, a junior 
reporter returning in the early hours from some 
engagement, saw the light burning in his room 
at the office as he pursued his endless activities. 



44 SUB-EDITING 

His paper was a model of a complete organ of 
local news and opinion. A still more striking 
instance of the same thing on a larger scale 
was the old Western Morning News, the staff of 
which I joined over 50 years ago and remained 
on for ten years. My chief was the late Mr. 
Albert Groser, whom West Country people still 
remember as the creator of a remarkably success- 
ful newspaper which stood for the particular 
type of public life and outlook characteristic 
of Devon and Cornwall a people as clannish 
as the Scots themselves. Still a junior reporter, 
but now entrusted with a news district, I 
regarded the sub-editors at the head office 
some of them bearded, middle-aged men with an 
impressive air of wisdom and experience with 
a certain amount of awe. 

The London Daily 

But this is not a book of reminiscence and 
my immediate task is to make a survey of 
sub-editorial work. For this purpose I will 
write from the standpoint of a London morning 
daily, premising that the main principles and 
rules there observed are of general application 
to the work, in whatever sphere it may be 
undertaken. Let us then look in some detail 
at the work of this small body of men only a 
fraction of the total staff of the paper, varying 
from 1,000 to 1,500 employees, but with an 
importance out of all proportion to its numerical 
strength. 

The writer of a recent book on journalism 
aptly described them as "a great and modest 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 45 

company of highly efficient technicians, of the 
very existence of whom, except as a group name, 
the public is ignorant." The sum total of their 
number in British journalism may be said to be 
"great," though in each office they are only a 
small proportion of the whole staff. One sub- 
editor may in a day or night revise the work 
of twenty reporters or more; this indicates the 
concentrated character of the work. 

Everything that goes into the paper passes 
through the hands of the sub-editors, except 
the advertisements, the leading articles, which 
are supervised by the editor, and various special 
articles and features which are dealt with by an 
assistant editor. The work of experts and special 
writers all needs the keen sub-editorial eye for 
the detection of errors, the provision of head- 
lines and general treatment in the way of correct 
paragraphing and proper display. It sometimes 
happens that the specialist who writes with 
authority on a particular subject is a bad gram- 
marian and makes foolish mistakes in spelling. 
These have to be watched for and corrected. 
The Times for years ran a little feature intro- 
duced by Lord Northcliffe entitled "News ii) 
Advertisements/' and in such case the advertise- 
ments do come within sub-editorial purview. 
Experienced reporters present their copy in the 
style of their paper and cause little trouble to 
the sub-editors, except when there is pressure 
on spate and good matter has to be sacrificed. 
It takes a long time to learn thoroughly the 
style of a paper. A style book is provided for 
the guidance of the staff, and this is dealt with 



46 SUB-EDITING 

later. The sub-editor is the custodian of " style " 
and has to keep a myriad points in mind in 
dealing with the varied mass of copy derived 
from sources ignorant of the particular rules of 
the paper. 

The sub-editorial rooms are the converging 
points of all the streams of news. Most of it 
comes from the paper's own reporters and 
correspondents, written in London or tele- 
graphed, telephoned or sent by train from the 
provinces, and cabled or telephoned from 
abroad. A mass also comes from the " agencies, " 
and there is also a very considerable quantity 
of what is called "official" copy. This consists 
of all sorts of documents MSS. of speeches 
from Ministers, public and commercial men of 
all sorts, anxious to be reported; blue books, 
white papers, communiques from Downing 
Street and Government Departments; reports 
of Royal Commissions, Select Committees, and 
important commercial and industrial bodies, 
and an avalanche of typewriting from the many 
organizations which have adopted expert pub- 
licity for propaganda. I recall one particularly 
heavy night during a general election when I 
handled letters, manifestos, and programmes 
from the following 

National Union of Societies for Equal Citizenship. 
Oxford University New Reform Club. 
National Workmen's Council. 

Temperance and Social Welfare Department of the Wesleyan 
Methodist Church. 

The True Temperance Association. 

Licensed Victuallers' Defence League. 

Road Reform Association. 

National Housing and Town Planning Association. 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 47 

Ulster Association of Peace with Honour. 

Sugar Beet Society. 

"Middlesex Hospital Falling Down." 

National Citizens' Union. 

Free Trade Union. 

Ulster Boundary Bureau. 

Lastly, when vitality was getting low, came an 
election ultimatum from the British Under- 
takers' Association on the subject of funeral 
reform, together with a memorandum on the 
growing popularity of cremation and the dangers 
of premature burial. Shades of Edgar Allan 
Poe, this was the limit ! Needless to say at such 
a time ruthlessness was the order of the night. 

Sub-editorial arrangements vary in different 
London offices. In some the whole of the news 
supply, home and foreign, passes into one large 
room and is subject to the adjudication of one 
chief sub-editor. In The Times there are four 
rooms of sub-editors: home, foreign, financial 
and commercial, and sporting, with a total staff 
of about thirty men. There is a foreign, as well 
as a home, chief sub-editor, and this might be 
expected in Printing House Square, where 
foreign news has always been an important 
feature of the paper. The news rooms have 
telephone annexes where expert shorthand 
writers receive long dispatches from the capitals 
of Europe. Wireless services from America and 
other parts of the globe are now on the increase. 

The Editorial Conference 

The arrival of the early men coincides with 
the holding of the afternoon editorial conference, 
which discusses a prepared schedule of the 



48 SUB-EDITING 

paper. The news departments have been 
busy since early morning gathering material 
from all points of the compass, and the schedule 
shows in detail all the stories actual or expected, 
with estimates of their length. The advertise- 
ments and the features are also scheduled, a 
gross estimate of the whole contents of the 
paper is reached, and the proposed size of the 
issue shown. The assembled "heads" judge the 
quality of the news, the possibilities of expansion 
or contraction, and whether tke paper is likely 
to be a tight one for space or whether there is a 
prospect not very usual of "letting things 
run." The conference is attended by all who 
hold executive posts, and here the chief sub- 
editors learn the editorial views on questions 
of policy and the comparative importance or 
unimportance of the various matters scheduled. 
Armed with the annotated schedule they are 
ready to tackle the night's work with their 
staffs. 

The "Copy Taster" 

The first man to get to work in the room is 
the "copy taster," the man with the super-news 
palate, who has to handle and assess all the 
copy. In some offices, I believe, all the copy 
goes first to the chief sub-editor, who sorts and 
grades it and "gives it out," afterwards revising 
it as completed and sending it to the printer. 
But, generally speaking, this double task is 
regarded as too arduous for one man ; hence the 
, delegation of the first impact of the copy to the 
"taster," leaving the chief free to give all his 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 49 

attention to the final revision. The "taster" 
has the schedule as a guide for the known stories, 
and the chief's advice when needed. On an 
easy night, when things go according to plan, 
the stories duly arrive and are dealt with on 
the basis of arranged space. The "taster" scans 
the copy, marks on it the heading required, 
notes any specially important or interesting 
points in it, and passes it to a sub-editor with 
any necessary hints or instructions. When the 
sub-editor has finished it, the copy passes round 
to the chief for approval, or otherwise, and if 
approved it is sent by pneumatic tube to the 
printer. Sometimes it is not approved. A head- 
line is faulty, the pruning process is incomplete, 
some mistake in a name has been passed, and 
the copy is returned to the man who prepared 
it for rectification. 

Meanwhile the copy is tumbling in and the 
taster gets more absorbed in his trying task of 
weeding out and spiking useless matter and 
finding real news, often buried in unsuspected 
places. It is his responsibility to miss nothing 
of value to the paper and not to put forward 
anything that is not worth its place. The 
severity of his choice varies with the space 
barometer. If extra pages have been added to 
the scheduled number owing to growing pres- 
sure and the threat of big news coming, he 
allows a little rein ; if the night editor is adamant 
and sticks to his scheduled size, the work of com- 
pression grows grimly as the scale of values 
alters. What was a "top" goes down; what 
was a good little story with its double heading 

5 (G.212I) 



50 SUB-EDITING 

becomes a "N.I.B." (News in Brief) or a mere 
filler, i.e. a paragraph without a head. Space 
problems are most acute on the "tabloid" 
.papers, and the way in which the daily illus- 
trated papers get all the news that matters into 
two or three small pages is a marvel of conden- 
sation. Their work is quite different from that 
on the bigger papers, but even there the greater 
amplitudes do not bring relief from space worries. 
The cutting of stories in proof at the behest 
of the night editor, who is making up the paper, 
is a frequent thing. It is not pleasant to have 
to kill, one after another, the nice points of a 
story and to bring it down to hard fact, but 
little else remains after a heavy night. To 
avoid disaster and to assist the maker-up on 
the stone in the composing room, it is always 
wise to get the best news into the beginning of 
the story, so that a quick and easy cut at the 
end will not, at any rate, extinguish the main 
points. Most stories lend themselves to this 
kind of treatment, which, of course, is the best 
from the reader's point of view. For instance, 
in an inquest always put the verdict in the 
opening paragraph, and then give as much of 
the evidence and the Coroner's summing up as 
space will allow. Important decisions and vital 
points in every story should be brought out at 
the beginning. This serves not only the tech- 
nical purpose of easy cutting, but gives the 
reader what he wants to know at once. Another 
point in cutting is to watch the headlines. If 
one of these lines is based on an excised passage, 
delete it and substitute another dealing with a 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 51 

live point that remains in the story. Many 
amusing, and annoying, blunders have been 
made by the neglect of this simple rule. 

High-speed Work 

Condensation is often high-speed work. In 
the tension of busy moments the brain of the 
competent man instinctively seizes the vital 
points and rejects the relatively unimportant. 
He knows, it is his business to know, what the 
public is really interested in, and his precis 
writing is dominated by that knowledge. The 
call for brighter and briefer news by^the mass 
of readers, who are not students and have no 
time for research, has to be met, and the sub- 
editor's movements synchronize with the grow- 
ing acceleration of life. News arrives more 
rapidly to-day than ever, and has to be disposed 
of with greater promptitude and brevity. Hence 
the need of well-stored minds capable of quick, 
decisive action. The same tendency is seen in 
literature. Solid books which had their vogue in 
Victorian days are out of fashion, and, to-day, 
the public are provided with sixpenny books of 
wisdom. So in the realm of ephemeral literature 
the tabloid paper has supplanted in the tastes 
of the million the solid and stately pages of a 
past generation. Compression is the order in 
most offices, and that is the field of the sub- 
editor. In the 1914-18 War, when people had 
only one main interest, one of the most widely 
circulated papers issued the edict that nothing 
was to exceed half a column outside the news 
from the battle fronts. 



52 SUB-EDITING 

A tribute paid by Mr. J. A. Spender to W. T. 
Stead, one of his closest friends for 20 years, 
says that his power of reducing masses of detail 
to lucid statement was unequalled. "Give him 
the biggest blue book and he would have the 
heart out of it in half an hour, and a luminous 
summary omitting nothing of importance, going 
to press within the hour. His articles were like 
hewing a straight path through a tangled 
forest." Stead would have made a brilliant 
sub-editor if he had not been called to a higher 
platform. How many envyjhis gifts when they 
are called upon to get human stories out of 
dry-as-dust official documents. 

There is a constant effort in "live" offices to 
improve the stories that come in by adding 
interesting facts, recalling historic parallels and 
incidents, for which the resources of the library 
and telephone are valuable. Very often a re- 
porter will fail to recognize in the paper the 
contribution he handed in, with the twists and 
turns that have been made, the attractive head- 
lines, the additions from agency copy of good 
supplementary matter, and the sub-editorial 
"write up." In these composite creations the 
sub-editor plays a large part. I remember when 
I began reporting in Fleet Street my news 
editor sent me to inquire about a new shipping 
service that was being started on the East 
Coast of Africa by a British line. I found that 
this enterprise was an extension to ports 
hitherto covered mainly by Germany by means 
of subsidized shipping. This interesting fact I 
duly noted in my report, and when it appeared 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 53 

next morning it had been emphasized and en- 
larged by fact and a table of the rival 'services, 
with a map of the route, headed in big type 
"German monopoly broken." I was grateful 
to the sub-editor who thus appreciated the value 
of the news I had secured and made a stronger 
and better story of it. It was in the days when 
Anglo-German competition was at its height 
and any news bearing on it was highly topical. 
In papers where write-up is the normal thing 
very few stories appear in their original form. 
They are, as a matter of course, knocked into 
the proper shape. A reporter very often, and 
very properly, gets enthusiastic about his story. 
It becomes the most wonderful piece of work 
that ever was, in his imagination, but when it 
is marshalled on the sub-editor's desk with all 
the rest it takes its rightful place in the general 
scheme, and therefore has to suffer change. 
When a new broadcasting station was being 
opened, a special correspondent made his report 
too highly technical for the general reader, and 
all his pet scientific terms had to be elimin- 
ated and the story cut to the portions which the 
average man might be expected to understand 
and be interested in. Some reporters lack the 
supreme gift of real story-telling, and the sub- 
editor has to supply, so far as he can, the missing 
quality. 

An Effective "Write-up " 

Another case of effective write-up, which 
thoroughly justified the effort, comes to mind. 
Mr. John Burns, who always had the gift of 



54 SUB-EDITING 

silence, and whose public appearances were 
therefore all the more striking, was announced 
as the chief guest at a dinner given by the 
Garden Cities and Town Planning Association 
in London early this year. This being his first 
public function since the War, the event was a 
notable one. It was treated variously by the 
papers. One that never gives way to emotion 
was content with recording in the first sentence 
that Mr. Burns made his first appearance in 
public since the War, but also recalled the 
pertinent fact that he was the author of the 
first Town Planning Act of 1909, when he was 
President of the Local Government Board. 
These facts were given without any embellish- 
ment, under the staid heading 

TOWN PLANNING ANNIVERSARY 

MB. JOHN BURNS ON THE SLUMS 

Contrast the same story as given in a popular 
paper devoted to the discovery of the human 
element. Its heading was 

JOHN BURNS 
COMES BACK 

SILENCE BROKEN 
AFTER 17 YEARS 

THE OLD ORATORY 

The story was written in that vein, the motif 
being the strangeness of his feeling after so long 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 55 

a lapse, how he began with hesitation as if 
wondering at the sound of his own voice, and 
then how he gained power and confidence as the 
great organ tones, which in days past had been 
unrivalled in the open air, once again took 
sway. It was recalled how seventeen years ago 
a stocky man with a bristling beard, wearing 
a blue reefer coat, slammed the door of No. 10 
Downing Street and, with a fierce scowl, strode 
away swinging his arms. Altogether an ex- 
cellent theme for a human write-up. When the 
Panama Canal was opened the Americans staged 
the bright idea of asking all their countrymen 
the world over to signalize the actual moment 
by raising the glass and drinking the toast: 
"Here's to Panama." The chief sub-editor saw 
the chance of a good story, and a little word 
picture was drawn in the room of knots of 
Yankees pledging the toast at all hours of the 
day and night under different skies and in 
romantic contrasts. 

The sub-editor, I may repeat, is not neces- 
sarily a writing man. He ffas to handle efficiently 
stories from brilliant writers stars that twinkle 
and coruscate in the firmament of Fleet Street 
whose work he cannot hope to emulate. 
The qualities of sub -editor and of writer are 
distinct. The -former is the paper's insurance 
against error of all kinds, much of which is 
committed by the aforesaid brilliant men. 
He handles raw material of priceless worth 
which needs his technical touch to prepare it 
adequately for the public eye. I admit that 
the work of the sub-editor is secondary in such 



56 SUB-EDITING 

case, though important. But do not forget that 
most of the copy is of lesser quality and gives 
much more work, not only in removing ordinary 
defects of style and grammar, but in introducing 
correct order, laying emphasis on special points 
and even in re-writing. Here the work of the 
sub-editor is frequently more essential than that 
of the writer himself. Often all that the sub- 
editor has is the bare piece of news, the hard 
fact. When his judgment has placed a high 
value on it, then he has to put the gem in its 
proper setting. Again much of the credit in 
the result is due to the reporter whose vigilance 
and enterprise discovered the big news, but the 
bulk of the labour has fallen on the shoulders 
of the sub-editor. 

A good test of sub-editorial ingenuity is a 
holiday season when there is no real news and 
when it is so difficult to escape from the "out- 
door festival/' the "rush to the coast," the 
"summer snowstorm/ ' the "high pressure at 
the post office " and other familiar friends. 
Parliament is on vacation, the law courts are 
up, and the papers have only the conferences 
of labour, educational, and other bodies to fill 
the gap. Sometimes the unexpected happens 
and a railway accident gives the lead, backed 
up with the tale of "previous disasters." Better 
still, a good crime mystery story may break 
loose, which will hold its place for days, for the 
public loves a mystery. It is a strange coinci- 
dence that great railway accidents have several 
times happened about the time of Christmas. 
To make effective stories out of Easter and 



A .SURVEY OF THE WORK 57 

Whitsun conferences of the I.L.P., N.U.T., 
Miners, Labour Party, Oddfellows, Buffaloes, 
Rechabites, and other bodies of even less in- 
terest, is not always an easy matter. Then the 
sub-editor who specializes in manufactured 
leads gets to work, and perhaps finds a mildly 
exciting theme running like a thread through 
two or more of them, from which he skilfully 
weaves a story. Even so, the "machine-made 
lead" is obvious to the trained eye. 

The "Different" Paper 

A master mind in this form of journalism 
was that of Lord Northcliffe, whose methods 
are so vividly portrayed by Mr. Tom Clarke. 
He insisted on the best brains of the office not 
being away during public holidays, because 
those were "awful times for news/' and the 
cleverest men should be on tap to provide a 
bright paper and make the most of the meagre 
news. One day the only real bit of news was 
the running down of a cyclist, who was out with 
his sweetheart at Lewisham, by a motorist who 
drove on without stopping. The story was dis- 
cussed at Conference. 

It remained for Northcliffe to lift the story above the com- 
monplace and make a big "splash " of it. He came in as I was 
finishing my narrative and he got me to tell it all over again. 
"That's a great story for a quiet day like this," he said, quick- 
ening his words as he went along. "Work it up. Work it up. 
Start a hunt for the motorist who drove on. The Daily Mail 
must bring him to justice. What is the colour of the missing 
car? Call it 'the Mystery of the Blue Car,' or whatever the 
colour may be. You must have an introduction something 
like this: 'A highway holiday starting in beautiful weather, 
with countless thousands of motors and bicycles on the road, 
bearing everywhere the huge population which is only beginning 



58 SUB-EDITING 

to taste the joys of open-air travel, has been marred by a 
highway tragedy . . . and so on/" Under the Chief 's inspira- 
tion we made this incident the peg on which to hang the 
general holiday story. 

Next day Northcliffe on the telephone said : "Well, the paper 
is 'different.' Look at the other papers with their long, dry 
screeds about holiday crowds, the same stuff that is printed 
every time out of cold storage." 

Difference in style of news handling may be 
given another illustration. Paper A allows no 
licence in heading and is not addicted to the news 
" write-up " ; paper B is a popular one. The news 
was that Mr. W. R. Morris (now Lord Nuffield) had 
purchased Wolseley Motors, Ltd. Headings 

(A) 
WOLSELEY MOTOR 

BUSINESS 

SALE TO MR. W. R. MORRIS 
(B) 

MR. MORRIS'S 

CHEQUE FOR 

730,000 

WOLSELEY MOTORS 
BOUGHT 

A FIGHT WITH THE 
FOREIGNER 

ROMANCE OF FORMER 
BICYCLE MENDER 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 59 

A brought out the point in the story that Mr. 
Morris was upholding British industry against 
the foreigner, but did not disclose the amount 
of the cheque. B wrote it up with "human" 
touches and got the points in the order of the 
headlines, with an inset picture of Mr. Morris. 

To turn to more ordinary work, I will refer 
to what constitutes a large proportion of sub- 
editing, namely, political and other speeches. 
From these are rigorously excluded all formal- 
ities and familiar currencies and cliches of the 
"venture to assert " type. There is no room for 
anything but sentences with a definite purpose 
and meaning, sentences that do not repeat what 
is already well known, but add something new 
to a subject either by fresh fact or argument, 
or the new setting of an old fact or argument. 
Experience gives facility in finding the points 
that matter in a long speech. You must know 
what your paper has already given on the sub- 
ject, so that a speaker is not allowed to waste 
space in retailing common knowledge. In the 
height of the Parliamentary season, and espe- 
cially at election times, there is a spate of plat- 
form oratory, and the task of selecting what is 
worth printing is heavy. Most points of con- 
troversy are worn threadbare, and new points 
and interesting headlines have to be discovered. 
Sometimes a number of utterances will be given 
under a "box" or "label" head such as "polit- 
ical speeches," with a double head first for the 
leading speech and smaller black heads for the 
speeches following, grading down to plain caps 
for the lesser lights below. When the speeches 



60 SUB-EDITING 

are divided up among several sub-editors, con- 
sultation is necessary to avoid headlines clash- 
ing. A keen eye is kept for doubles, and there 
is a constant quest for variety. In a long 
speech correct paragraphing and illuminating 
cross-heads are needed to assist the reader and 
avoid monotony. In one office the rule is that 
every cross-head must contain a fact. It is 
an elementary thing in paragraphing to make 
the break where a new subject, or a new branch 
of a subject, begins. In a speech running to 
half a column or more the first paragraph, a short 
one, is put in larger type. 

Watching for Blunders 

Very often speeches come by wire, and the 
old " flimsy " (which happily is disappearing) 
is hard to read and handle. Blunders in trans- 
mission are frequent, and by some perversity 
of fate they often occur at crucial points in the 
speech. A key word is wrongly rendered, and 
there is some awkward blank in the copy. If 
there is time a request for a corrected version 
is sent to the Post Office, but to get this means 
a reference to the place of origin, perhaps in the 
north, or Ireland, and the clock never stops. 
Otherwise the sub-editor has to find the missing 
word or words and to substitute the correct 
word by intelligent deduction. I noted in one 
telegraphic report of a speech by Mr. Baldwin a 
curious collection of errors, due either to faulty 
transcription of shorthand notes or mishearing 
by the reporter, or to the telegraphist's in- 
accurate sending 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 61 

injuries for interest 

concourse for caucus 

moment for omens 

fabric for subject 

Another message gave "developed" for what 
might be either "devoted" or "distinguished." 
The sub-editor has to make his choice and take 
the risk. 

A curious lapse occurred in the report of a 
speech by Mr. Arthur Henderson, the Foreign 
Secretary, who was made to refer to the "work 
of disarmament contemplated in the Treaty 
of Marseilles." The substitution of Versailles 
was, of course, found in the next edition. The 
"ravishes" of the death-watch beetle were 
alleged in one telegram to be the cause of 
damage to a church timbered roof. Much amuse- 
ment was caused one night by the following 
tape message, which split an infinitive very 
thoroughly and misquoted a key word: "Lam- 
beth Guardians are to urge the Government to 
seriously consider the urgent question of the 
sterilization of the mentally unfit not later than 
the age of publicity and thus save untold suffer- 
ing and expense." 

Then there are absurdities perpetrated by 
the speakers themselves, and to tinker about 
with verbatim reports is a delicate matter. 
But, even so, statesmen must be saved from 
mistake. One was made to declare: "We look 
to the coming generation to repair the irrepar- 
able waste of the Great War." The sub-editor 
had to repair the speech. Another Minister 
delivered himself of this glimpse of the obvious : 
"Any unnecessary waste of public expenditure 



62 SUB-EDITING 

through inefficient methods or inadequate equip- 
ment is not economy, but is a material waste of 
expenditure." He must have been thankful for 
the intervention of a friendly sub-editor who in 
this case did not follow the maxim : "Give what 
the man says." 

Two instances of the need of arithmetical 
vigilance. 

A Standing Committee of the Board of Trade 
was inquiring into an application by the Sheffield 
Cutlery Manufacturers' Association for an Order 
for marking all imported cutlery. One witness 
declared that the total annual import of one 
type of American safety razor blades into this 
country if spread out would cover England 
eight times over. This duly appeared in print 
in several papers. A distinguished Cambridge 
professor, with a taste for statistics and a sense 
of humour, wrote the following day: "The area 
and population of England are known, as also 
are the dimensions and weight of safety razor 
blades: a simple calculation shows that nearly 
800,000,000 tons of this particular type of blade 
reaches our shores annually, and that every 
year each man, woman, and child consumes on 
the average about 20,000,000 blades, weighing 
between 19 and 20 tons. Taking the cost of the 
blades at the moderate figure of 2d. a piece, 
each inhabitant of the country spends over 
150,000 per annum on safety razor blades; 
this tells us who pays the super-tax. Whilst 
disclaiming any desire to interfere with the 
innocent amusements of the people, I feel that 
this safety razor business is being overdone; 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 63 

traffic will be impeded, and the scenery spoilt 
when the discarded blades cover our fair England 
eight deep." 

A more prosaic case was a speech on agricul- 
tural economics. The telegraphed report said: 
"It only required six to seven acres to produce 
all our own wheat/' An obvious absurdity, due 
to the omission of "millions," but the sub-editor 
must be sure, so a reference to Whitaker revealed 
our wheat acreage, our production, and our im- 
ports. The rest was a simple calculation, which 
warranted the insertion of the missing millions. 

Figures should always be verified. Errors 
have been found even in blue books and in 
statements issued by accountants. It is the 
rule in most offices that foreign money values 
and measures must be converted into their 
English equivalents, be they dollars, roubles, 
marks, francs, lire, kroner, metres, kilos, or 
what-not. It often adds clearness and interest 
to a story consisting largely of masses of figures 
to set out central features in tabular form. For 
instance, if a railway or a motor-coach company 
announces new fares for certain routes, it is of 
assistance to the reader to put the places and the 
fares into a table which shows him at a glance 
what he wants to know. To dig out vital data 
from a huge body of statistics involves trouble, 
but the result is worth the time spent. 

Constructive Stories 

Let us consider what I may call constructive 
stories, which are the work of the senior men, 
whose experience and knowledge fit them to 



64 SUB-EDITING 

handle masses of copy in the rough and bring 
order out of chaos. These are big wrecks and 
storms, railway accidents involving great loss 
of life, strikes on a national scale, widespread 
floods, a coronation or a Royal funeral, an air 
disaster such as R 101 all such bring messages 
from many sources and have innumerable 
" ends " to them, which need sorting out and con- 
verting into consecutive narrative. The mere 
mass is calculated to appal the inexperienced. 
A sure touch and quick judgment are required 
to co-ordinate the overflowing material; a high 
degree of confidence born of long training alone 
enables a man to have the finished product ready 
displayed story, introduction, headlines, sum- 
mary and contents bill in time for the edition. 

Time is of the "essence of the contract" in 
the sub-editor's room. The weaving of a clear, 
striking, and well-balanced story from a tangled 
skein of many threads is a formidable job in any 
circumstance, but when time is short and the 
first edition approaches steadily, relentlessly, 
the need for clarity of mind and firm, decisive 
work is greater than ever. The wise man makes 
a general estimate of the "weight" of a story 
from a hurried glance through the copy, and 
decides the scale on which it can be handled 
for the first edition. If the quantity and length 
justify it, he is given help and "farms out" 
sections to colleagues. 

The Budget belongs to this class of story. In 
the case of papers that deal with it fully and 
all papers treat it as the biggest news on the 
first night there is a great deal to be done in 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK . 65 

the way of choosing tables from the Treasury 
statement, showing the national accounts from 
many angles, and illustrating the effects of 
proposed new taxation, or changes in existing 
taxes and duties. In addition there is the Chan- 
cellor's speech, which is dealt with by the Gallery 
and Lobby men, but all comes into the ken of 
the sub-editor in charge of the whole story. He 
has to make all new points crystal clear so that 
the reader may understand readily the state 
of the nation's finances, and the individual tax- 
payer may realize how he is affected. To present 
a Budget clearly and accurately is a good piece 
of work, more especially when new burdens are 
imposed or there is any change in methods of 
grading or collection. 

Sometimes it happens with a big story like a 
revolution abroad, or an abdication, or an earth- 
quake, or the like, that for some reason or 
other your own correspondent fails to come in 
for the first edition and you have to rely on 
scraps from agencies and local correspondents. 
The story has to be built from exiguous material 
pending the arrival of the graphic connected 
narrative from your own man. 

In all these dramatic events the actual news 
narration is led off with an introduction written 
by the sub-editor. Generally it is of double 
column width, giving at a glance the main facts. 
Display devices appropriate in these cases are 
dealt with in another chapter on typography. 

Some London papers have to get their first 
editions away early in order to provide the 
breakfast-table paper for distant places. This 

6 (G.2I2I) 



66 SUB-EDITING 

difficulty has been met by printing duplicate 
editions in the north, but not in all cases. The 
task imposed on sub-editors by this early "cut" 
is exacting. Big stories have to be left in mid- 
air and late important news does not come in 
time for the first edition. Thus when the pages 
have been plated they are immediately hauled 
back and the work of reconstruction tackled at 
once. . Sometimes it means making entirely new 
pages, and sub-editorial work is doubled. It 
inevitably means bigger staffs. 

Where papers have northern printing plants, 
private wires are installed in the offices and are 
used for sending copy prepared at the head 
office and make-up instructions, ensuring exact 
duplication with the London editions. Some of 
the large provincial papers have considerable 
staffs in London whose copy is sent over private 
wires. These wires also carry the pictures sent 
by the new processes. The late sub-editors of 
these papers in Fleet Street have to go through 
the early editions of the London papers and 
send the "early morning" wires containing 
summaries of the main news and comment. 

As showing the keenness of the "provincials" 
in beating the "Londons," I have heard of a 
London editor of an important group of pro- 
vincial papers being got out of bed at 2 a.m. 
to write a hurried leader on a late news subject. 
The leader was duly telephoned and given the 
prominence it was worth as a special and exclu- 
sive feature. 

When I hear of sub-editors who are censured 
or "fired" for making a mistake, I think of 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 67 

Patti who at one of her numerous farewell 
concerts forgot the words of "Home, Sweet 
Home," although she had been singing it all 
her life. The failure of the human machine, 
even in its most perfect form, is a certainty at 
some time or other. Even an engine-driver, 
entrusted with the lives of hundreds of people, 
sometimes fails. So a sub-editor, though pos- 
sessed of more than the ordinary share of in- 
fallibility, sometimes gets tfce wrong sow by 
the ear. Although this happens to the best of 
craftsmen the lapse is dangerous and there is 
constant effort to prevent it. To ensure against 
it the big offices adopt elaborate precautions. 
There are censors at work in some part of the 
building reading all proofs barristers with 
sharp eyes for legal perils; assistant editors 
quick to detect blemishes in style and grammar, 
and blunders in policy. This explains the oc- 
casional visits of a silent messenger to the chief 
sub-editor and the placing on his desk of a 
proof marked with some query which may con- 
vict even the ablest sub-editor of an unsuspected 
error. 

Some Subtle Perils 

These things must be subtle to escape notice. 
The obscure double entendre, the hidden absur- 
dity which may give Punch an opening, some- 
times gets through the guard even of one who 
answers to an impromptu definition once given 
by a colleague 

What is a sub-editor ? One who has leanings 
In harmless phrases to see dubious meanings. 



68 SUB-EDITING 

Duty ranges from eliminating concealed libels 
from a speech, or a criticism, to the placing of a 
French accent in the right place. Although the 
old rule "when in doubt leave out" is a sound 
one, there is such a thing as a too meticulous 
standard. Common sense, backed by solid 
knowledge, is often vindicated when an apparent 
risk is taken. But I must beware of giving a 
dangerous incentive. However, an illustration 
of my meaning is. the libel case once based on 
the use of the word "story" in a heading. The 
sub-editor had employed it in its ordinary sense, 
but the plaintiff argued that it implied some- 
thing discreditable. The Judge held that the 
word was used in its natural and reasonable 
sense and the newspaper was vindicated. I am 
devoting a chapter to the legal side of the work. 

Questions of policy often give anxiety, and 
it is always advisable to submit points of doubt 
to the chief sub-editor, who will, if necessary, 
get a ruling from above. Where matter is> 
tendentious, this course is the safe one. This 
aspect of the sub-editor's work was amusingly 
hit off in a recent "dinner edition" of the 
Daily Mail 

The Slider Trophy. A team of the D.M. sub-editors is in 
training for next year's Slider Trophy contest, a prize being 
awarded for the most skilful skater on thin ice. 

Always be chary of records. It is risky to say 
that anything is the first of its kind or the 
largest or longest, or that someone is the oldest 
living person. Once a woman was elected as 
sheriff of a county and the heading was put up 
"First woman sheriff," although in the text 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 69 

the cautious phrase was used "said to be/' 
But the opening was taken by the inevitable 
correspondent, who wrote to explain that cen- 
turies ago a woman held the office, and not long 
ago she herself had been elected a sheriff, but 
could by no means claim to be the first of her 
kind. As to longevity, the news that an ancient 
Turk, somewhere about the century and a half 
old, was wandering about America and Europe 
was sufficient to warn against rash assertions. 

A knowledge of natural history might have 
prevented another amusing error. A message 
from Yorkshire stated that raids on game in a 
certain district had been explained by the cap- 
ture of "a huge merlin hawk/ 1 Next day came 
the unfailing letter. The merlin hawk, it was 
explained, is a very small bird and is quite 
common in the county of the broad acres. 

Dates must be closely watched. Official and 
other documents are often issued to the Press 
in advance with a "release date" stated. If 
this intimation is not sufficiently bold it is apt 
to be overlooked and premature publication is 
the result. An important instance was the 
Royal Commission on Coal. The evidence of 
the coal owners was awaited with much interest, 
and a statement of their case was issued in ad- 
vance for the convenience of the papers. One 
paper published it straightway, although all 
the others observed the instruction not to use 
it until the material was actually placed before 
the Conimission in public sitting. It was a mis- 
take for which there was little excuse. 

At times, copy giving the dates of forthcoming 



70 SUB-EDITING 

events is wrong, and the calendar check should 
always be applied. For instance, if the copy 
says that something is to happen on Wednesday, 
I2th May, and if I2th May is a Tuesday, who 
is to say which is the correct date and day? A 
reference back to the author is necessary, if the 
copy is worth troubling about. 

Contents Bills 

Contents bills are not primarily intended to 
be works of humour, but sometimes they are un- 
consciously funny products of an unwary mind. 
One or two classic examples are appended 



MR. BALDWIN 
HITS OUT 



THREE BELFAST MEN 
INJURED 



GREAT NATIONAL 
DISASTER 

D. A. THOMAS 
SAVED 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 71 

Austen Chamberlain 
at Birmingham 

Remarkable Escape of 
Gas 



The victims in the first two cases were so 
amused with the bills that they secured copies 
for preservation. Mr. Thomas (afterwards Lord 
Rhondda) had his framed and placed in Cardiff 
City Hall. It referred to the destruction during 
the War of the Lusitania from which he escaped. 
Effective contents bills are always in demand. 
The Star has a style in this matter which is not 
badly shown in its bill on a record flight to 
Australia 



GREAT 
SCOTT ! 



the result of the hectic by-election in 
St. George's, Westminster, with its "Press 
Lords'", campaign, was declared, the Man- 
chester Guardian's bill was 



SUB-EDITING 



ST. GEORGE 

SLAYS THE 

DRAGON 



During the War the sinking of a troopship in 
the Baltic gave occasion for a novel bill 



GERMAN 

REGIMENT 

SUNK 



A guiding rule in writing contents bills is to 
arouse interest without giving away the news. 
For instance a bill worded: "Bank rate lowered 
to 3 per cent" is wrong. It should be "Bank 
rate decision." A clever contents bill promotes 
the sale of the paper. The headline is a different 
case, because the paper has been purchased 
and the reader is entitled to the "delivery of the 
goods." News of the widest interest is the 
subject of the "general" bill, but local bills are 
often sent out when there is a story of value 
from a particular district. Circulation staffs are 
always keen on promoting area sales. A story of 
special interest to universities would be billed 
in all university centres ; and news and articles 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 73 

affecting coast resorts or mining or cotton dis- 
tricts, for example, are similarly treated. It has 
happened, but^not often, that the absence of 
news has been big news in itself, as with one 
of the adventurous flights of recent years, when 
there was an ominous silence from the ocean 
over which the aviators were travelling. The 
bill was: "No news of Atlantic fliers." 

Foreign Sub-editing 

Foreign news is vastly interesting, and its 
efficient handling demands special qualifications. 
The process of learning the topography, the 
racial characteristics, the politics and the re- 
ligions of the countries which are news sources- 
the range is world-wide in these days of universal 
communications is an endless one. Languages 
are useful and necessary. In most foreign room 
staffs there are men competent in French, Ger- 
man, Italian, and Spanish, and in some there 
are men familiar with the hieroglyphics of the 
East, and even capable of writing Limericks in 
Chinese. It is not often that messages by cable 
are sent in a foreign language, though some- 
times brief and important ones are; but the 
Press of other countries has to be read and 
studied. Cabling is an art in itself, and the 
sub-editor's task is measured by the way in 
which messages are transmitted. When the 
cost of sending is reckoned at shillings a 
word, abbreviation and skeletonizing are, of 
course, essential, and these are occasionally done 
in so inefficient a manner that the message is 
hopelessly obscured. Abbreviations should be 



74 SUB-EDITING 

discreet and not lavish ; full stops necessary to 
make the sense clear should be inserted. In its 
suggestions to foreign correspondents a leading 
newspaper says that it is false economy to cut 
down messages until they become unintelligible ; 
that by a consistent method of abbreviation it 
should be possible safely to omit about 25 per 
cent of the words. Correspondents are urged 
to prepare their telegrams in full before deleting 
the superfluous words, and then to read them 
over finally with an eye to possible pitfalls for the 
sub-editor. Would that this sensible advice were 
always followed. It would save many an anxious 
conference between bewildered journalists. 

"Writing-up" is more necessary in foreign 
than in home news because of the customary 
brevity of messages. Alert correspondents 
abroad keep their headquarters well posted in 
the background of the news, so that often the 
receipt of a news "flash" will release a flood 
of interesting matter already in hand for an 
expected development. The building up of big 
foreign stories from a variety of news sources 
is fascinating work that has often to be done. 
Codes have to be understood, and weird skeletons 
clothed with flesh. The sub-editor who is on 
late duty has to be informed of the operative 
codes arranged with foreign correspondents, so 
that he can handle messages in the early hours. 
I remember one unfortunate man who, by some 
oversight, had not been apprised of the current 
code, and who received a cablegram which he 
was utterly unable to interpret. The code was 
safely locked up somewhere in the office, and a 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 75 

frantic search was futile. Result: the paper 
missed the news. 

A Sea-serpent ILpisode 

Mr. Wickham Steed puts on record an amus- 
ing story of a sea serpent and a stupid sub- 
editor. A South Australian correspondent of 
The Times cabled, at a cost of 55. a word, a long 
account of a huge sea serpent alleged to have 
been seen off that coast. Moberly Bell, the 
manager, thought it too costly a piece of folly, 
and the correspondent had to seek other work. 
It was delicately hinted that sea-serpent tales 
could be invented more cheaply in London. 
Hearing that The Times had parted with its 
Adelaide correspondent the head of a news 
agency offered the services of its man in that 
city. Bell accepted the offer and indicated the 
kind of news wanted (important political events, 
condition of crops, prospects of the wool clip, 
etc.), "but no sea-serpents." He told the news 
agency manager the story of the correspondent's 
downfall. The agency service went on satis- 
factorily for a time, until one day a message 
about the wheat harvest concluded with the 
words: "Bishop Adelaide found Colwyn Bay 
dead/' Cables are often "omnibus" like this. 
The sentence was detached and sent to the 
obituary department, which produced a memoir 
of the said departed bishop, and this duly ap- 
peared next morning. 

Later the Postmaster-General, a brother-in- 
law of the bishop, appeared at The Times office 
full of wrath. "What do you mean by killing 



76 SUB-EDITING 

my brother-in-law? " he demanded. "He is not 
dead at all. I have spent a pot of money 
cabling condolences to my sister, who replies 
that her husband is alive and perfectly well. 
I have ordered mourning for the whole family. 
You must rectify your false news, publish an 
apology, and pay me compensation." Bell ex- 
pressed his regret and paid compensation. He 
sent for the head of the news agency and said 
that their Adelaide man had landed him in a 
pretty mess. A cable had better be sent to the 
Adelaide man for an explanation. The original 
cablegram in the possession of the agency was 
produced, and there were the words: "Bishop 
Adelaide found Colwyn Bay dead." 

But they were followed by a broad blue pencil 
mark. "Hallo, what's this?" exclaimed Bell. 
"Something has been struck out." "Oh," 
answered the agency man, "the missing words 
are 'sea-serpent 30 yards long/ Your instruc- 
tions said you wanted no sea-serpent, so the 
sub-editor in charge struck those words out." 



Some Regular 

A few of the regular and routine jobs may be 
noted. Copy of very irregular value comes 
daily from the law and police courts. Bow 
Street and the Old Bailey provide the most 
interest, but the police court cases, many of 
which are still done by the old-time "liners" 
on flimsy, are mostly food for the spike. High 
Court cases are, of course, on a very different 
plane, and by their importance demand con- 
siderable space. Since the severe regulation of 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 77 

the reports by statute the Divorce Court has 
been shorn of much of its sensational appeal. 

The London Gazette makes its appearance on 
Tuesdays and Fridays, and has to be carefully 
digested. Sometimes announcements of the 
greatest news value are contained in it, con- 
cealed in the usual mass of official notices of the 
routine order. An expert eye is given to this 
potential news source. Wills and bequests have 
likewise to be combed for interesting matter; 
and even diocesan magazines are scanned in 
some offices for anything out of the ordinary. 
A news editor of my acquaintance carries his 
researches as far as Notes and Queries for the 
material for stories. 

Summaries have to be written of all the stories 
of any size, giving the main point and the page 
reference. The writing of telling summaries 
and of real "briefs" is quite a small art in itself. 
Then, too, contents bills have always to be 
thought of, and the night editor appreciates the 
offer of striking bills. 

Helpful and informative footnotes are often 
desirable, and indeed a story sometimes needs 
one. One of the factors that has always to be 
taken into account is the short memory of the 
public. An isolated piece of news that may be 
perfectly intelligible to the trained mind of the 
journalist, whose duty it is to follow events 
closely, needs interpretation and explanation 
for the ordinary reader, and he is the individual 
whom the sub-editor should always 
mind. In many stories the 
provided in the introduction, 




78 SUB-EDITING 

is more fitting to embody the necessary points 
in a footnote. An illuminating addendum to 
the dispatch of a special correspondent can 
supply any missing link in the chain of fact. 
One of the few compliments that ever came my 
way from "The Chief" was earned by a footnote 
to a Washington message during the War which 
referred to a speech on finance by Bonar Law. 
As it stood, the message needed supplementing 
for the non-expert reader; so a footnote ex- 
plaining what Bonar Law had said was ap- 
peded. It was quite a simple and obvious 
thing to do, but the unusual sequel of a little 
"bouquet" fixed it in my mind. Neither sub- 
editors nor other ranks either expect or receive a 
pat on the back very often. Absence of criticism 
is the negative expression of satisfaction. 

Co-ordination is necessary between the picture 
page and the news departments, and the 
caption writers generally submit their work to 
the news sub-editors for the verification of facts. 
In a picture of a railway accident the number 
of killed and injured in the caption must agree 
with the figures in the news story, when, as in 
many cases, they appear on different pages. 
When a delightful snapshot of the first lambs 
is printed, the sub-editor with some knowledge 
of the pastoral pursuit is referred to, as to the 
breed of sheep shown and the state of the 
lambing season. The staff photographer returns 
from a Royal show with pictures of the champion 
bull, heifer, or steer, and collaboration with the 
man who handles the news story is essential to 
ensure accuracy in the names of the winners 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 79 

and in sex-denominations. You must not call a 
Shorthorn a Friesian ; nor must you follow the 
example (? legendary) of the Fleet Street sub- 
editor who passed a paragraph about a fight 
between a stoat and a mangel-wurzel. 

Pictures are a constant source of anxiety. 
In groups of people it is so easy to give the 
wrong names in the caption. Once, owing to 
the turning of a negative, the central figure in 
a ceremonial episode was shown in the printed 
picture wearing his sword on the right instead 
of the left, and another person in the same 
group had his medals on the wrong breast. 

'Value of Specialism 

Passing allusion has been made elsewhere to 
the advantage of specialism. Most sub-editors 
have a hobby or a speciality which is useful in 
work. With a large staff it would indeed be a 
strange bit of copy if not one was able to deal 
with it in a knowledgeable way. Doubtless the 
sub-editorial expert in music was taking a night 
off on the occasions which gave rise to a criticism 
in Whitaker for this year, in the section "The 
Year's Music." It runs: "Sometimes when the 
critics in the MS. venture on an opinion worthy 
of a musician's attention, it has been ruthlessly 
deleted by a soulless fellow charged with the 
sub-editing of their copy, and the space was 
filled with the names of distinguished and 
undistinguished -people forming the audience. 
Servants' hall news !" 

There is a growing tendency for journalists 
to pass over to publicity work, for which they 



8o SUB-EDITING 

have the best qualifications. This means that 
sub-editors are being increasingly assailed with 
astute propagandism of all kinds. The Press 
agent-cum- journalist knows how to give news 
interest to his "boosting" stories, and this kind 
of copy cannot safely be spiked without examina- 
tion. A great deal of it gets into a certain class 
of papers, but in the big offices the sub-editors 
are proof against trade and professional pro r 
paganda, however skilfully disguised as news. 
At the same time it must be agreed that trade 
and industry produce many interesting stories 
with real news value, and this field has hitherto 
been neglected by many. 

Sport, finance, and commerce are outstanding 
features in all the chief papers, and the men 
engaged in sub-editing in those departments 
have special knowledge and experience, fully 
entitling them to rank as experts. Sport is 
claiming a larger share of public interest than 
ever, and the proper handling of each game 
requires special knowledge. Some of the most 
skilful headline work is found on the sports 
pages, especially at crowded week-ends in the 
height of the season. 

Financial and commercial sub-editing is a 
distinct branch for which special training is 
essential. Messages dealing with the money 
markets of the world, the exchanges, inter- 
national and national finance, produce markets, 
and commercial affairs generally, have their 
own vocabulary and their own characteristic 
phrasing, and to handle them demands expert 
knowledge. The writers on finance in the chief 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 81 

papers have the status of economic authorities, 
and the sub-editors in this sphere are not far 
behind. At times they have to write "city 
notes" themselves. One of the nightly jobs is 
the compilation of the New York " parity table/' 
for which special ready reckoners are used. 

Admonitions in Brief 

A few admonitions based on long experience 
may be given in the form of brief points 

Master your material by careful reading and 
get a grip of the essentials. 

Leave nothing to chance or luck, as mistakes, 
once made, cannot always be overtaken. 

Your own views on politics, religion, or any- 
thing else must not be allowed to warp your 
judgment; remember you are the exponent of 
your paper's outlook. 

Check all names and titles by the reference 
books. (This applies especially to Court and 
social news and to ceremonial and other reports, 
carrying lists of names.) 

Familiarize yourself with the initials in general 
use for public bodies; as an instance the three 
railway unions: R.C.A., N.U.R., A.S.L.E. & F. 
These mystic titles are in such general use that 
it is wise to keep an index book in which to 
enter them up for handy reference. Papers 
to-day swarm with initials, essential to abbrevi- 
ate a host of ponderous war-time titles. There 
are many other useful bits of information not 
readily found in the reference books which can 
be similarly treated. 

Beware of local correspondents who gather 

7 (G.2I2I) 



82 SUB-EDITING 

news from a wide area by "milking" the local 
papers. They often send stale, unreliable, and in- 
accurate copy. 

If your handwriting is good, keep it so ; if it 
is bad try to make it better. Don't give printers 
or readers the necessity of making queries. 
Send out your copy in workmanlike style. 

When you first join a staff study your paper 
and master its methods and style. 

A warning about date lines. If you convert 
a message "written for the paper," with the. 
usual "yesterday" in it, into an F.O.C. message 
with place and date line, do not forget to alter 
"yesterday" to "to-day," and vice versa. 

Look out for crude mistakes, such as "this 
morning at n a.m."; "knots per hour"; "two 
aeroplanes came in behind one another"; and 
circumlocutions, such as "adverse climatic con- 
ditions" (bad weather); "he succeeded in stop- 
ping" (he stopped); "hours of work previously 
in operation" (former working hours). And 
misspelt words: accomodate, apparantly, pro- 
ceedure, harrass, Field Marshall, represent a 
brood of hardy survivors. 

Do not place too much faith in the well-worn 
word "alleged." If a statement is really dan- 
gerous it will not save you, though there are 
times when it furnishes a certain safeguard. Do 
not use it unnecessarily. It is absurd to say 
that a man was brought before a Court on an 
"alleged charge." The charge is made, not 
alleged, and is itself the allegation. 

In cutting down a long document be careful to 
keep the thread of the speech or the narrative ; to 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 83 

do this it is often necessary to write in a line or 
two to preserve the pith of a deleted passage and 
provide the requisite connecting link. 

If a story you have promises a follow-up, 
suggest it to the news editor. He will welcome it. 

Get to understand wherein Scottish customs 
differ from English. Don't be floored by "homo- 
logate" and "avizandum," which will some- 
times decorate a message from over the border. 

Do not resent a query or a suggestion from 
the readers ("correctors of the press"), who, 
bringing a fresh mind to bear on a story, some- 
times detect a sub-editorial slip. 

Do not despise small points ; make your copy 
as perfect as possible for the printer. It is the 
little foxes that spoil the vines. 

Nautical" Don V 

The following practical notes by a journalist 
who served his apprenticeship in a naval port 
are taken from the Journalist, to which they 
were contributed by "R.V.W." 

Don't say "on" a ship, but "in" a ship. A sailor no more 
lives on a ship than a landsman lives on a house. The most 
glaring error I ever saw in this connection was a report of a 
man "on 11 a submarine. He must have been a limpet. 

Don't refer to a ship as "it." Ship is one of the few English 
substantives which has a gender feminine. 

Don't call all warships "battleships." When in doubt, call 
them plain warships, which is a comprehensive term. 

Don't call a ship a "boat." Boats are small, open craft, 
which ships carry at their davits or in which watermen disport 
themselves. 

Don't talk about the "commander" of a ship unless you 
mean a naval officer with three stripes on his sleeve. The man 
in charge of a warship is always called "captain," irrespective 
of his real rank in the navy list, whilst the tin god who controls 
the destinies of a merchant vessel is officially the " master." 



84 SUB-EDITING 

Don't say "cast" anchor. Try casting one yourself first! 
Conrad is reported to have shot a reporter who used this ex- 
pression. The correct form is " dropped anchor " or " anchored." 

Don't say "aboard," but "on board." 

Don't say "member of the crew." Get around it by calling 
him a seaman, a fireman, or " one of the crew." 

Don't use the word " bluejacket" or " Jack Tar," or " handy- 
man," or " middy." All are taboo. 

Don't forget that, in conversation, all naval officers without 
brass hats are plain "mister" even those with brass hats are 
"mister," if they have colours between their sleeve stripes de- 
noting that they belong to the non-combatant branches. 
Commanders are given the courtesy rank of "captain" on 
social occasions. 

Don't write "fo'c's'le" or any such abortion. It's written 
forecastle., same as "Chumley" is written Cholmondeley and 
" Beever " is written Belvoir. 

Don't use any naval, marine, nautical, or seafaring expres- 
sion unless you are sure of it ; you can always get around it, or 
ask someone who knows. 

Correspondence has recently appeared on the 
question whether the definite article should be 
used before a ship's name. On this point a naval 
officer with wide journalistic experience writes 
me 

Sailors, except for the sake of brevity, as in signalling, use 
the definite article before a ship's name. A writer has just 
dedicated his book to "all who sail in Rodney." The correct 
expression should be " to all who sail in the Rodney." Another 
mistake I have had to correct concerns the use of the words 
"way" and "weigh." We weigh anchor in order to get under 
way. 

Courts martial have a procedure of their own 
and sometimes there are little irregularities in 
the reports sent in. I once had the advantage 
of a pronouncement from a high quarter. It is 
rather a good sample of "officialese," but it 
may be useful to give it 

Where the plea to a charge is " not guilty " the finding of the 
Court therein is, under Military and Air Force law, only pro- 
nounced in open court if it is a finding of acquittal. Conse- 
quently when an accused has pleaded " not guilty " to a charge, 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 85 

a report published before promulgation that he has been found 
guilty can only be based on an inference drawn from the silence 
of the Court regarding their finding on that charge. While in 
the majority of cases this inference is logical and correct, two 
points must be borne in mind : (a) no finding of ' ' guilty ' ' is 
valid until it has been duly confirmed ; (b) in various classes of 
offences it is open to the Court to find the accused "guilty" 
of a cognate and usually lesser offence. If I might venture to 
suggest a form of words which would in a like case be both 
accurate and innocuous, it would be to the following effect 
at the conclusion of the usual report of the proceedings, and 
any finding of acquittal pronounced, a paragraph might be 
added indicating that the finding and sentence of the Court on 
the remaining charge or charges, if any, are subject to con- 
firmation and will be promulgated in due course. 

This applies to Army and Royal Air Force 
Courts Martial. 



TLxamples Good and Bad 

This chapter may fitly include an actual 
sample of practical work. Below are given two 
messages : A, sent by a truly local correspondent, 
which is a good example of how not to do it, and 
B, the same subject handled in competent 
fashion. Both were sent to a national daily 
which had no room, and no taste, for the 
parochial touches that might suit a local weekly. 
The messages are printed just as they reached 
the sub-editor in telegraphic form (names and 
key words that might indicate the locality being 
omitted) 

A 

Consequent upon a mayoral mtg o townsmen / inquiries 

mde by / local commee wi view to rehabilitate / boro wi new 
industries are bng furthered by an advisory brd o representa- 
tive men and women o industrl and other local sections and 

is now on / tiptoe of expectation ex mayor as 

chrmn o commee cncllr Mr. and others had assidu- 
ously devoted themselves to this outstanding question and it 
was upon initiative of councillor seconded by Mr. 



86 SUB-EDITING 

and supported by councillor that the advisory board was 

brought into being what is more immediately under considertn 
is questn o encouraging by measure o local financial subscriptn 
/ establishmnt by a company on / site o / old world renowned 

wks of a wks such as wd probably take two yrs to 

build and wd then give employmnt to fifteen hund men 
Industrl reps wl incidentally put the position before their 
respective organisations it being suggested that the eight 
thousand miners might take up between them total of eight 
thousand one pound shares other inhabitants to swell this 
quota to say fifty thousand pounds towards a total capital of 
say 150 thousand pounds an engineering expert who has 

had much experience abrod and favours site will agn be 

in consultation wi / town representative he thinks t a compy 
the lanching o which wd be encouraged by local cooperation 

should work profitably pn / manufacture of , which are in 

growing demand for various purposes and are at present im- 
ported to large extent if present discussions shd lead to 

formation o this proposed company / owners o site will 

charge no .rent fr first five years report by advisory board wl 
be made to another mayoral meeting 

B 

An advisory board has been appointed by Corporation 

to consider proposals for starting manufacture of on the 

site of the dismantled works stop Engineer with whom 

sub-committee of corporation has been in consultation, is 
reported to have expressed opinion that could be pro- 
duced at at fair competitive prices, and suggested if 

inhabitants were prepared to find money for purchasing 
machinery, working capital might be obtained outside stop 
Further suggested Government be approached for ^50,000, 
and that wage-earners cooperate with tradespeople and others 
by acquiring i shares, if necessary by instalments stop 
Stated that owners of the site prepared to let ground- 
rent free to any company establishing an industry there, 
for first five years of its occupation stop Proposals have 
created widespread interest in town, which has unemployed 
population about 8,000 suggested plant would give employ- 
ment to 1,500 workers at outset. 

"Style " Books 

There is so much variety and latitude in 
English spelling, the use of compounds and 
capitals, and punctuation, to say nothing of the 
larger questions of literary "style," that the 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 87 

chief newspapers all those with a "personal- 
ity" of their own have prepared a "style 
book" for the guidance of their staffs. Sub- 
editors new to an office always have to study 
these interesting little products because one of 
their more important duties is to "keep to 
style." With experience this becomes almost 
automatic, although, with modern additions 
to the language and changes in taste, the most 
conservative of papers are subject to revision 
of rules. 

Etymological experts themselves differ a.t 
times, so contradictions and divergences in 
these style books may well be expected. An 
instance is the termination "ise" or "ize." 
One book lays it down 

The English z, far from being an "unnecessary 
letter," is a useful one, which should be pre- 
served in its proper place. Where the termina- 
tion of a verb has been formed directly or by 
analogy from a Greek iew, z is usually right in 
English. But similar terminations not so derived 
must be distinguished, where s is etymologically 
necessary; and literary usage has in certain 
cases made s the best style even where z is 
possibly in accordance with etymological pro- 
priety. Instances are: advertise, analyse, chas- 
tise, circumcise, compromise, enterprise, super- 
vise, surprise, etc. A balance of English usage, 
and correct pronunciation, similarly prescribe 
s in the nouns formed on the same model; 
e.g. chastisement, enfranchisement, advertise- 
ment (spelt and pronounced differently from 
the American " adverb' zement," which follows 



88 SUB-EDITING 

the usual American spelling " advertize "). Apart 
from such examples, z is to be used ; e.g. civilize, 
baptize, realize, recognize, organization. 

The American style of writing "labor/ 1 
"honor," etc., however much it may be justified 
as a reversion to older English usage, is opposed 
to the best contemporary English practice, and 
is not to be adopted. 

Another book states that the "Oxford Dic- 
tionary" and the "Authors' and Printers' Dic- 
tionary" are used as authorities, but "there are 
instances where, for adequate reasons mainly 
convenience and old-established custom they 
are not followed." For instance, all words end- 
ing with "ize" in both dictionaries are spelled in 
this office with an "s," as in "specialise." 

The foregoing are sufficient to illustrate con- 
flicting customs. The great thing is to get uni- 
formity and consistency in the one paper, how- 
ever much its style may differ from others. 
A few of the more usual rules may be quoted to 
indicate the kind of knowledge that a sub- 
editor has to accumulate 

POSSESSIVE CASE. Use the 's wherever pos- 
sible. Singular : Jones, Jones's ; plural : Joneses, 
Joneses'. Where the 5 is silent it should be 
omitted, as in "conscience' sake." 

PREFIXES. Omit the hyphen usually, but in 
such words as pre-exist, re-elect, pre-war, it 
must be used. One paper prints " co-operation," 
but another "cooperation." 

ITALICS. Names of plays, operas, revues, and 
films should be in italics, also titles of news- 
papers and periodicals; names of books and 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 89 

songs in Roman. Foreign words that have 
been taken into English currency need not be 
put in italics. 

FIGURES. Spell single figures ; 10 and upwards, 
figures. Sentences must not begin with figures, 
i.e. "Fifty miles away", not "50 miles away." 

Other rules govern the use of "a" and "an" 
in relation to the h mute; "or" and "nor"; 
adopt "close" and "open" styles of punctua- 
tion; prohibit the use of the split infinitive; 
warn that "alternative" means only one other 
way; restrict "christening" to its strict and 
proper religious use (a ship is "named," not 
"christened").; call attention to common errors 
such as "knots per hour" \ and point out that 
solicitors are not "counsel" (only members of 
the Bar are) ; that "epidemic" is properly used 
only with reference to disease (not burglaries, 
fires, etc.), and so on. 

BARRED WORDS AND PHRASES. Female, lady 
(say woman generally), Britisher (Briton), de- 
ceased, conflagration deposed, numerous and 
costly, paid tribute to, discoursed sweet music, 
prior to (before), lengthy (long), white mantle 
(snow), cold collation, pukka, mere man, fair 
sex, festive season. 

OVERWORKED WORDS^ Thrilling, tragic, sad, 
dramatic, amazing, sensational, pretty. One 
book says: "If a story is tragic or sensational 
and is well told there is no need to tell readers 
of its qualities ; they can find them. If Genesis 
began 'The amazingly dramatic story of how 
God made the world in the remarkably short 
time of six days. . . .' But it doesn't." 



90 SUB-EDITING 

t 

Delane was ruthless in his corrections on 
points of style as well as substance. "I have 
heard," says Kinglake, "that when dealing with 
proofs he disclosed a severe taste, striking out a 
great deal of ornament ... he fostered a dis- 
position to write in sterling, unadorned English/' 
He expected his staff to write in "good, simple 
English, capable of being translated into Latin 
prose, without slang and without technicality/' 
Even in the rush of the small hours he would 
insist on correcting inaccurate or slovenly ex- 
pressions. Dean Wace says: "I remember his 
being particularly indignant with the use of the 
slipshod phrase that a marriage, or a funeral, 
or a race, had 'taken place/ It was mere 
slovenliness of expression, he said, instead of 
saying that a marriage had been solemnized or 
a race run." 

Use of Reference Books 

While there are some queries that must be 
referred by the sub-editor to the office library 
or intelligence department for answer, nearly 
every story that is handled contains points that 
have to be looked up in the reference books kept 
for speedy use in the room. A knowledge of the 
resources of these books and a facility for quick 
reference are important. Some of these books are 
in constant demand. "Whitaker's Almanack" 
is a mine of useful fact; it gives all the usual 
Parliamentary, political, administrative, and 
social data and answers such questions as "Is 
he a V.C.?", "What is the longest railway 
tunnel?", "What were the wheat imports last 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 91 

year?", "Who is the Lord-Lieutenant of such 
and such a county?", and many others which 
arise in work at the desk. " Whitaker's Peerage " 
is a useful book and should be kept up to date 
by entering honours as bestowed during the 
year; while Burke and Debrett are needed for 
lineage and collaterals. Ruvigny and Gotha 
cover the social ranks abroad. 

"Who's Who" is, of course, the best guide to 
living persons and the ' ' Dictionary of National 
Biography" to the famous dead. Often the 
question arises "Is he dead? ", and it is difficult 
sometimes to answer. " Who was Who" is use- 
ful here. Burke's "Landed Gentry," Kelly's 
"Book of Titled People" are good. For Im- 
perial and foreign information of all kinds the 
"Statesmen's Year Book," and the official lists 
of the Foreign, India, and Colonial offices are 
needed. Music, the stage, and the film have 
their own books of biographical reference. 
Gazetteers and maps of many kinds ^re used, 
and it is worth while being able to plot out 
positions at sea by latitude and longitude, to 
locate a wreck. Some offices have a staff of 
special draughtsmen working in the "map 
room." 

The "Telephone Directory" is useful for 
names, and " Crockford's Directory," essential 
for things ecclesiastical, furnishes a good gazetteer 
in its alphabetical list of parishes. For quick 
reference in Parliamentary affairs there are 
Vacher and Dod, with " Hansard " for exact pas- 
sages from speeches, while election figures are 
readily found in the " Constitutional Year Book." 



Q2 SUB-EDITING 

A little work called the "Red Poll Book" gives 
the results of all the Parliamentary elections 
back to 1832. 

The Church of England has its Year Book 
and also other churches of importance ; and the 
universities have their calendars, full of valuable 
data. They will decide whether a man is 
entitled to be called a professor or not. The 
" Universities Year Book" covers all the .univer- 
sities of the Empire . The ' * Municipal Year Book " 
gives details of the county, borough, urban, and 
rural councils ; the Law List shows all the K.C.'s, 
counsel, solicitors, judges, recorders, stipendiary 
magistrates, and coroners; and other essential 
books include the " Medical Directory," the 
" Stock Exchange Year Book," the " Directory of 
Directors," the Army, Navy, and Royal Air Force 
Lists, and Lloyd's Registers of shipping (for 
tonnages, owners and ports of registry). For 
Ireland the directory is Thorn's, and for Scotland 
" Oliver and Boyd's Edinburgh Almanac." The 
index volume of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica" 
is valuable on a broad scale, and then there are, 
'of course, the English and other dictionaries, 
concordances of the Bible and literature, Grove's 
"Dictionary of Music" and many other cyclo- 
paedias, books of quotations, and year books, 
not forgetting Haydn's "Dictionary of Dates." 
This is a very cursory glance at a whole library 
of specialized books, which experience alone will 
teach how to handle. A very learned man once 
defined a learned man as he who knows where 
to find things. This aspect of learning has a 
specific application to sub-editors. 



A SURVEY OF THE WORK 93 

The Art Department 

Pictorial journalism is a subject that would 
require a whole book to itself for those who 
intend to make a serious study of it. For the 
general sub-editor a knowledge of its broad 
essentials is necessary. On large staffs there is, 
of course, an art editor with his own photo- 
graphers and sub-editors or caption writers. 
This department of the editorial staff has a 
special technique of its own. On the smaller 
papers the news sub-editor will be called upon 
to handle picture work that is to select photo- 
graphs from those submitted by agencies, free- 
lances, and amateurs, to write the captions and 
plan the make-up. "Newsy" pictures, action 
as opposed to still life, and the unusual angle, 
are the chief merits sought, together with bold 
contrast of light and shade for effective printing. 
The "screen," coarse, medium, or fine, is chosen 
according to the quality of the printing paper 
and the nature of the subject. 

The half-tone process which made the pace 
for the enormous extension of newspaper illus- 
tration is based on the device of the screen, a 
glass plate with minute diagonal rulings which, 
placed between the negative and the object, 
breaks up the picture into innumerable dots. 
It is the grouping of these dots in varying 
degrees of density that gives the gradations of 
tone which were impossible in the old line blocks, 
composed of black and white only. The line 
block survives for cartoons and comic strips, and 
is having some revival in news sketches. It 



94 SUB-EDITING 

gives an individual touch which some prefer 
to the purely photo-mechanical process. A 
growing method of illustration, of high artistic 
possibilities, is photogravure, or the intaglio 
process. In America it is often called roto- 
gravure, and the use of this method of printing 
on rotary machines for newspaper illustration is 
being actively exploited, but the difficulty is 
mainly that of speed. Those who desire to master 
the whole subject of pictorial work should study 
one of the textbooks which are devoted to it. 



CHAPTER IV 
ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHY 

TYPOGRAPHY, and the mechanical departments 
of newspaper production, are subjects of great 
interest to the journalist. For the sub-editor 
who aims at the attainment of an executive 
position they are of practical and essential im- 
portance. The literary and news-handling side 
of the work comes first in order of time, and is 
the supreme matter in sub-editing, pure and 
simple, but the technical requirements con- 
stantly compel attention, and the efficient per- 
formance of sub-editing demands a good deal 
of practical knowledge of type and machines. 
The craft of the printer has profound historical 
interest, and its artistic possibilities have a 
strong appeal; while the origin and develop- 
ments of the printing press, of mechanical com- 
position, and of the processes of illustration, 
naturally come within the purview of the 
journalist. A well-equipped sub-editor should, 
in short, have a good working knowledge of the 
whole train of operations by which news is 
gathered, prepared, printed, and delivered to 
the reader. In this chapter I propose to deal 
briefly with typography. 

It may be recalled that Sherlock Holmes 
regarded knowledge of types as an elementary 
qualification of the crime expert, though he 
admitted that when he was young he confused 

95 



96 SUB-EDITING 

the type of the Leeds Mercury with that of the 
Western Morning News. How many journalists 
would be able to distinguish them? Holmes in 
one place pays a tribute that is worth quoting 

There is as much difference to my eyes between the leaded 
bourgeois type of a Times article and the slovenly print of an 
evening halfpenny paper as there could be between your negro 
and your Eskimo ... a Times leader is entirely distinctive. 

When The Times adopted the newer forms 
of machine composition the greatest care was 
taken to preserve the quality and character 
of the old founts of type. It should be men- 
tioned that The Times has always been a pioneer 
in mechanical progress, and long before the 
monotype and the linotype were invented there 
was a type-setting machine in use in Printing 
House Square, known as the Kastenbein, which 
was capable of setting 298 lines in an hour. 

H. V. Morton, the brilliant special writer who 
has adorned the pages of the Daily Express and 
the Daily Herald, makes some penetrating com- 
ments on technique and training 

Journalists (he says) should first win their spurs in the re- 
porting room, the basis of all good journalism. They should 
start in the provinces, interviewing the local Mayor, reporting 
local fires, police courts, county courts, bazaars, and church 
functions, getting an all-round training. And it is only in the 
provincial office that a member of the editorial staff acquires 
an adequate knowledge of the technical side of newspaper 
production. 

It is astonishing how few journalists to-day know the tech- 
nique of newspaper production. When I started in the provinces 
I never went home till I'd got a copy of the issue off the press. 
Even if I had nothing to do I hung round watching the com- 
positors and machines, learning how it was all done . . . Sub- 
editing kills writing. By 1914, after a year of sub-editing, I 
couldn't write a line. Fortunately the War gave me a way of 
escape, and I gradually got back to writing, though I didn't 
forget my technique. 



ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHY 97 

This is good common-sense advice, although 
to say that sub-editing "kills writing," without 
qualification, seems to me an exaggeration. 

Mind and Mechanism 

Among the papers still in my file is the 
centenary number of the Sydney Morning 
Herald, which is an altogether worthy product 
of a great newspaper. It contains a page headed 
"Producing a Newspaper; stages from copy 
to the printed sheet." Having described how 
the world is "combed for news," the story, 
under the pregnant crosshead "Merging Mind 
and Mechanism," proceeds 

This fleeting glimpse of how the news is gathered leads us to 
consider how it is transmitted into metal, printed and delivered 
to close upon a quarter of a million homes, all in the space of a 
few hours. First the news passes the rigorous scrutiny of the 
sub-editor. He and his assistants must read every line, weigh 
carefully its news value, be sensitive to lurking libels, determine 
what space can be given each item, what headings it should 
carry to epitomize its most striking features, and what type 
it should be set in. 

This is an excellent summary of the function 
of the sub-editor; I quote it here because it 
brings out the task of the men who have to cast 
the mental product into the mechanical mould. 
To do so efficiently requires knowledge of the 
processes of the composing and machining 
departments. 

In the daily routine the sub-editor comes into 
frequent contact with readers and printers and 
the picture department most closely with the 
printer. The "comp," as he is generally known, 
is usually an excellent fellow, who takes pride 

8 (G.2I2I) 



98 SUB-EDITING 

in his craft and is often a born wit. Some 
so-called "printer's errors" are so funny and 
so apposite that they must have occurred by 
design and not by chance. I resist the tempta- 
tion to give some classic examples, and keep to 
my more prosaic theme. Printers welcome the 
co-operation of the sub-editor and respond 
usually to the desire to acquire the practical 
touch, though possibly the "littery gent/' who in 
his keenness handles a brass or a piece of type, 
may be playfully asked to produce his union 
card. 

Point System 

The old names by which types of various sizes 
were known, such as minion, brevier, and bour- 
geois, are rapidly becoming obsolete. The point 
system, originated in America, is now widely 
used in this country. For instance, in many 
offices it is now the rule to mark copy " y-point " 
and "8-point" instead of "min." and "brev.," 
though others continue to use the old familiar 
names. The success of the point system of 
measurement was inevitable, because of the 
variations in sizes of types made by the different 
founders, which caused all sorts of difficulties 
in adjustment. For instance, a long primer from 
one case might vary, perhaps ever so little, from 
the long primer of another case, but that frac- 
tional difference would produce difficulty in 
alignment. So the necessity for standardiza- 
tion in type was recognized, and the basis was 
found in the "point," of which there are 72 
to the inch. Pica is a sort of standard and 



ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHY 99 

equals 12 points, six picas going tt> the inch. 
This measurement applies to the face of the 
types as shown in printing, i.e. the letter as 
seen in print plus the white space above and 
below it, which represents the body of the 
"stamp" or piece of .type. If you examine a 
"stamp" you will see that below the face of 
the letter which prints is the "beard" which 
projects a little beyond the letter. This, being 
sunk below the face of the letter, does not 
print, but gives the "white" between the lines 
in printing. If this amount of white is not suffi- 
cient, it is increased by the insertion of leads or 
brasses between the lines. Thus, very impor- 
tant news will be double leaded, and particular 
parts of a story it is desired to throw into relief 
will also be leaded. In some offices important 
matter such as leading articles is set in, say, 
9-point type on a lo-point body, which means 
that it looks whiter in print, and the necessity 
of leading is obviated. To make it quite clear 
I repeat that the point measure is the thickness 
of the line as seen in print, including the white 
above and below the printed letters belonging 
to the body of that line. In this system all 
types are cast as multiples of the i-point unit. 
The extreme range of sizes used in newspapers 
is from 5 point (Pearl) to 12 point (Pica), 
but the latter is only used occasionally, for 
matters of unusual importance. Broadly speak- 
ing, the classification of the uses of types is as 
follows 

Smallest founts (Pearl, Agate or Ruby, and 
Nonpareil) for masses of formal copy such 



ioo SUB-EDITING 

as Stock Exchange dealings, Bourse quota- 
tions, broadcasting programmes, and commodity 
markets. 

Minion (and in some offices brevier) for 
ordinary reports, such as meetings, conferences, 
Parliament. 

Bourgeois or long primer for important news 
stories, leading articles, and specials of all kinds. 
A general practice is to set the beginnings ol 
stories in these larger types and then "drop 
into" minion, as it is termed, to save space. 
Sometimes in an extended minion report matter 
quoted textually, such as a long resolution or 
series of points, is set in a smaller type like 
nonpareil or ruby. These arrangements depend 
on the space position and the judgment of the 
sub-editor. 

Specimens of the type founts mostly used, 
showing the point designations and the old 
names, follow. The sentences are taken from a 
little essay by C. E. Montague on the joys of 
journalism 

5-point (Ruby) 

With word of what earth-shaking event would the chief sub-editor 
come at the witching hour into his little still room, slung up above 
the sleeping city that they were to set all a-buz<{ at daylight with the 
news? You might suppose the thrill of hearing things a few homs 
sooner than your fellows would soon pass away- Some of us never 
find it has passed. 

6-point (Nonpareil) 

With word of what earth-shaking event would the chief sub- 
editor come at the witching hour into his little still room, 
slung up above the sleeping city that they were to set all a- 
buzz at daylight with the news ? You might suppose the thrill 
of hearing things a few hours sooner* than your fellows would 

7-point (Minion) 

With word of what earth-shaking event would the 
chief sub-editor come at the witching hour into his little 
still room, slung up above the sleeping city that they 
were to set all a -buzz at daylight with the news? You 
might suppose the thrill of hearing things a few hours 



ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHY 101 
8-point (Brevier) 

With word of what earth-shaking event would the 
chief sub -editor come at the witching hour into his 
little still room, slung up above the sleeping city that 
they were to set all a-buzz at daylight with the 
news? You might suppose the thrill of hearing 

9-point (Bourgeois) 

With word of what earth-shaking event would 
the chief sub-editor come at the witching hour 
into his little still room, slung up above the 
sleeping city that they were to set all a-buzz at 
daylight with the news? You might suppose 

10-point (Long Primer) 

With word of what earth-shaking event 
would the chief sub-editor come at the witch- 
ing hour into his little still room, slung up 
above the sleeping city that they were to set 
all a-buzz at daylight with the news? You 

11-point (Small Pica) 

With word of what earth-shaking event 
would the chief sub-editor come at the 
witching hour into his little still room, 
slung up above the sleeping city that they 
were to set all a-buzz at daylight with the 

12-point (Pica) 

With word of what earth-shaking 
event would the chief sub-editor come 
at the witching hour into his little 
still room, slung up above the sleep- 
ing city that they were to set all a- 

Pearl (5-point) is not included in the series, 
because it is too small for general use. There 
are even smaller types in existence, namely, 
Excelsior (3-point), Minikin (3-point), Brilliant 
(4-point), and Diamond (4^-point). An inter- 
mediate between Nonpareil and Minion is Emer- 
ald (6|-point) which is known as Minionette in 



102 SUB-EDITING 

America, where sj-point (shown here as Ruby) 
is known as Agate. 

There is a broad distinction in type faces 
indicated by the terms "modern" and "old 
style." This book is set in old style; the ex- 
tracts printed above are in modern, except the 
first one (in 5|-point, i.e. Ruby). Nearly all 
newspapers use the modern (the Morning Post 
is one of the few that are set in an old-style 
face) ; books are set in both. The choice is a 
matter of taste. Close examination of the two 
styles will show that in the old-style, or old-face, 
the serifs, or little flourishes, are more pro- 
nounced than in the modern, which is plainer 
and more severe. Types that have no flourishes 
at all are of the sans-serif group, spoken of as 
plain sans among printers. These sorts of black 
type are often used in the display of newspaper 
stories. In recent years a great deal of research 
has been going on with the object of discovering 
the most legible types for newspaper use, and it is 
a matter of practical importance to the reading 
public. When the Daily Mirror introduced a 
new type it flooded the country with the 
poster "Ionic to-day." Some casual observers 
of this bill were led to wonder whether it was 
a racing tip, or the name of a strange god that 
had got into the news. 

Proof Reading 

Proof reading is often done by juniors in the 
smaller offices, but is, of course, the work of a 
special department in the larger offices. Here, 
however, the sub-editor often has to handle 



ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHY 103 

proofs for various purposes, and a knowledge 
of the correct system of marking is necessary. 
I have had a short leader from The Times set 
with a large number of mistakes in it (of course 
no such "dirty" proof would come up in ordin- 
ary work) and it is presented overleaf with the 
reader's marks, and side by side with it is the 
corrected matter. A comparison of the two the 
first proof and the final revise will show how 
all the usual "printer's errors" are dealt with. 
The chief marks may be briefly explained 

"Centre" means that the spacing on either 
side of the title must be equalized. 

The correction on the right of the title means 
that it has to be reset in 10 point Old Face 
Heavy type, upper and lower case i.e. initial 
letters in "upper," or capitals, and the rest in 
lower case. 

A, with the treble line underneath, indicates 
that "academy" must have a capital. 

The sign next to the A in the left margin 
means that a space has to be inserted between 
"the "and "first." 

A wrong letter like "a" in "existance" is 
crossed through and the correct letter written in 
margin as e/. The reader always puts a stroke 
after his correction in the margin. 

The sign for a turned letter appears against 
the fifth line for the turned "w." 

S.C. indicates small caps wanted. 

Missing letters are indicated by a carat at the 
appropriate place and the right letter, or quota- 
tion marks, or whatever it may be, in the margin, 
as here in the word "generation." 



HOW TO CORRECT A PROOF 




A , JL y 
V*/ 1*/ 
I * 



-/ 



The French academy has for theiirst time 
in its long existence admitted to the highest 
literary honour in France a journalist who has 
never been anything but a journalist, who has 
never .written a book, or entered Parliament, or 
composed poetry, .but who has now been wel- 
comed by the Dirj^fy of that august assembly 
as " one of the best writers of the present 
j;eneratn." Journalists have been elected 

ArnrleTrnic.\an^ before such 8S MflJ. LEMOINNE 

and HERVE, who were primarily journalists and 
incidentally followed other occupations^ or M. 
CLEMENCEAU whose place the new member is 
taking who was at one time a famous 
journalist and later a still more famous states- 



&/ 
/ 



/ 
/ 



111 

'l **$>/ 

/ 



man^ 
MJutM. 





lut M. CHAUMEIX has won the honour solely 
by his writings for a single newspaper. As its 
chief leader-writer he has contributed to the 
journal des Dfbats for thirty years articles of 
exquisite quality on politics, philosophy, and 
literature. Working under the pressure of daily 
publication^ he has known what it is to finish 
on the stroke of time words which all the world 
will be at liberty to criticise on the morrow, 
and which for him unlike the writers of mere 
books there is no chance of revising or recast- 
ing. ^GRACE'S piudent precept saepe ftifl'"rj 
vertas^ is not advice that he can follow. He 
must write quickly ; and what he has written 
may never be rO raced or recalled. v. 



prc? 



/" 

7/1^4. / *y eti m l nese circumstances M. CHAUM/^X has pr 
/ & /7j duced work which has leceived the authoritati 
V3L / //*/ / hal1 m ^ rk of llteraLurc - And indeed the dif/eren 
7 between literature and ^Journalism is not one/style 
but of circumstance, notof class but of purpose. 
Daily papers have another scope and reason than 
books. Their articlesjaear^a^jlirect jelation^JLo J.he 
events of the" hour." "They^are or should bn^flash- 
j lights of literature turned upon contemporary 
f / history. They lUimine and disappear. They throw 
**/ only transient beams of enlightenment or instruc- 

' tion ; but in the aggregate they may influence the 

thoughts and the actions of a generation. M. 
f ChmQ|g-4ias deserved well of his profession ; and 
the Academic Franfaise has .once more shown that 
f / it is not so inflexible and ^'conventional as some of 




/*/ 




READER'S MARKS IN CORRECTING A PROOF 



TYPE AFTER CORRECTION 

A Journalist Honoured 

The French Academy has for the first time 
in its long existence admitted to the highest 
literary honour in France a journalist who has 
never been anything but a journalist* who has 
never written a book, or entered Parliament, or 
composed poetry, but who has now been wel- 
comed by the DIRECTOR of that august assembly 
as " one of .the best writers of the present 
"generation.'* 'Journalists have been elected 
Academicians before such as MM. LEMOINNE 
and HERVE, who were primarily journalists and 
incidentally followed other occupations ; or M. 
CLEMENCEAU whose place the new member is 
taking who was at one time a famous 
journalist and later a still more famous states- 
man. But M. CHAUMEIX has won the honour 
solely by his writings for a single newspaper. As 
its chief leader-writer he has contributed to the 
Journal des Debats for thirty years articles of 
exquisite quality on politics, philosophy, and 
literature. Working \mder the pressure of daily 
publication, he has known what it is to finish 
on the* stroke of time words which all the world 
will be at liberty to criticize on the morrow, 
and which for him unlike the writers of mere 
books there is no chance of revising or recast- 
ing. HORACE'S prudent precept saepe stilum 
vert as is not advice that he can follow. He 
must write quickly ; and what he has written 
may never be retraced or recalled. 

Yet in these circumstances M. CHAUMEIX has 
produced work which has received the authori- 
tative hall mark of literature. And indeed the 
difference between literature and journalism is 
not one of style but of circumstance, not of 
class but of purpose. Daily papers have another 
scope and reason than books. Their articles 
bear a direct relation to the events of the hour. 
They are or should be flashlights of literature 
turned upon contemporary history. They 
illumine and disappear. They throw only 
transient beams of enlightenment or instruc- 
tion; but in the aggregate they may. influence 
the thoughts and the actions of a generation. 
M. CHAUMEIX has deserved well of his profes- 
sion ; ' and the Acad^mie FranQaise has once 
more shown that it is not so inflexible and 
conventional as some of its critics proclaim. 
A leader from The Times. 

"CLEAN" PROOF AFTER CORRECTION 



106 SUB-EDITING 

"Rom" means that the word "Academicians" 
has been wrongly set in italics and must be set 
in roman type. The same mark lower down 
shows that "H" in "Horace" is incorrectly an 
italic instead of a roman capital letter. Then the 
three Latin words should properly be in italic 
and not roman, and are so marked. 

"Run on" means that there must be no new 
paragraph or "break" and the setting must be 
made to continue. 

In the last line of the second paragraph a 
space is redundant in "re traced" and the 
close-up mark appears on the right. 

There is too much "white" between the 
second and third paragraphs, and the two marks 
grouped on the right mean delete space. 

The whole of the last paragraph has been 
wrongly set in 7-point (min.) instead of g-point 
(bourgeois), hence the mark down the whole of 
the right side with the instruction "reset in 
b'ges," the reader using the old name of the 
type and not the point designation. This is a 
matter of office usage. 

Against line three of the last paragraph is 
the mark "ff," meaning that in the word "differ- 
ence" the two f's are separate letters and should 
be the double ff, which is cast in one piece of 
type. 

In line seven of the last paragraph the com- 
positor has not equalized his spacing, and the 
mark "eq." on the left corrects this. 

In line eight of the last paragraph two "metal 
rules" have been omitted. 

In the last line of the paragraph the letter " i" 



ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHY 107 

is marked into "crtics" and the full point after 
"proclaim/ 1 

The bottom line of all is out of centre like the 
caption at the top, and the name of the paper 
is in roman instead of italics. 

Column widths are measured in ems ; the em 
is the square of the letter M. Usually it is the 
pica em that is meant, as pica is a standard. 
Thus the news columns of The Times are 14 ems 
wide, and the leader page columns 16 ems 
spoken of thus the em means pica. The en is 
half the em and is the unit employed in measur- 
ing type for charging up piece-work in com- 
position. For this purpose matter is calculated 
by the 1,000 ens. > 

Estimating Length 

It is necessary for the sub-editor to know the 
type capacity of his columns. A minion column 
may contain 200 lines and average seven words 
to the line, giving a total of 1,400 words to the 
column. Copy can be estimated by averaging 
the words to the line and the lines to the folio, 
and a fairly exact computation made of what 
it will make in type, due allowance being made 
for headlines, cross heads, and leads. By con- 
stant practice it is possible to make quick and 
accurate estimates, and this accomplishment is 
invaluable in sub-editing. In most offices copy 
is measured by the column and its fractions 
one-half, one-third, one-quarter, or one-eighth. 
Where old fashions still prevail, quantities are 
measured by the hand compositor's "stick." 
Composition by linotype and other machines 



io8 SUB-EDITING 

has rendered this largely obsolete. In The Times 
office the column is divided into 32, and this 
assists close and careful estimating. One 32nd 
contains seven lines of minion, and, at an 
average of eight words per line, fifty-six words. 
Half a column is called, precisely, i6/32nds, and 
so on. The spaces taken by the various standard 
size headings are spoken of in the same way. 

Heading charts are provided in properly or- 
ganized offices. The range of headings in general 
use, from the "splash" down to the small single- 
liners that fill up the bottoms of columns, is 
shown, with the names of the types and the 
maximum number of units per line. The line 
total of units includes the spaces. Regard must 
be paid to the proportions of thick and thin 
letters in the words of the heading. The totals 
of units on the heading charts are based on 
averages, and judgment is needed to gauge 
possibilities. For instance, in this line 

MAXIMUM NUMBER 

the unit total is 14, and owing to the unusual 
quantity of M's it would be a tight squeeze, if 
not an impossibility, to get it into a regulation 
14-unit line. But if the desired line were 

AN IRISH CRISIS 

it would come in easily, although there are 15 
units. These include four I's and three S's, 
which are much thinner letters. 

Making the heading fit is one of the ever- 
present, and often difficult, tasks of the sub- 
editor, and skill is attained only by experience. 



ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHY 109 

The most brilliant ideas in word forms are sub- 
ject to the rigid limitations of type, and often 
the copy of a cleverly worded line comes back 
from the printer with the disheartening dis- 
closure that "it won't come in." Then the task 
is to find the synonym that will. When a piece 
of copy is assigned a certain heading that carries 
a general rule as to length. Ordinary headings 
are known as A, B, C, D, E, and so on. The 
bigger heads cover stories that are necessarily 
elastic as to space, but the smaller heads import 
a maximum length. Heading styles, of course, 
vary, but there is a general rule as to the 
balance of single and turning lines. Observa- 
tion of one's paper is the sure guide. 

How to Prepare Copy 

Some concise rules for the preparation of 
copy may be given, although they are applicable 
equally to reporters and sub-editors. Copy is 
received not only from staff reporters who 
observe the style of the paper, but also from 
agencies and contributors of all sorts, and their 
work has to be marked to bring it to the 
standard. 

Reporters should use the typewriter whenever 
possible. 

Never write single-spaced copy. Double or 
triple spacing gives room for clear interlineation. 
A jumble of closely written lines is very difficult 
to handle. 

Always put your name in a top corner of the 
first folio. 

Leave a good margin on the left, and allow 



no SUB-EDITING 

a good space at the top of the first folio for head- 
lines or slug lines or instructions to printer. 

Of course, write on one side of the paper only. 

Never write vertically in the margin. 

The copy cutter (i.e. the man in the com- 
posing room who slices up the folios into short 
"takes" for setting) is seriously handicapped 
by marginal up-and-down writing. 

Indent deeply for paragraphs. 

Do not divide a word from one page to 
another, or from one line to another. It is 
advisable to complete a paragraph at the 
bottom of a folio when only a few words remain 
and start the next folio with the fresh paragraph. 
This is specially useful when "rush" copy is 
being sub-edited page by page as it comes from 
the writer. 

Names and figures should be written with 
special care. If a correction is required, cross 
put the wrong word or figures and substitute 
the correct ones complete. 

If words are purposely spelt wrongly put the 
note "follow copy" in a circle in the margin, 
for the printer's guidance. 

Never put two distinct stories on the same 
folio. 

When a story is complete put a mark at the 
end to show that it is finished. 

Acquaint yourself thoroughly with your office 
rules as to abbreviations, the use of capitals, 
italics, quotation marks, words for figures 
(usually words are employed for figures under 
10), compound words, titles (i.e. Rev. or the 
Rev., etc.), punctuation (close or open), and 



ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHY HI 

the spelling forms prescribed where, there are 
alternatives. 

The basis of these rules is chiefly typo- 
graphical, and it is well to understand in a 
practical way the reasons for them. Therefore, 
a knowledge of typography is valuable and 
facilitates the preparation of copy. The sub- 
editor is the intermediary between the copy 
writer and the make-up editor and printer, and 
to discharge his duties efficiently he should 
have real knowledge and understanding of the 
work of all three. 

A Sample Story 

We will now look in some detail at the actual 
preparation of stories, taking first a straight- 
forward example (Plates IV and V). The 
custom of The Times and some other papers in 
dealing with long and important official papers 
like this is to give the main portions at adequate 
length on an "away" page, and to print a 
descriptive summary on the main news page 
with a cross reference to the fuller story else- 
where. Not so many years ago a story like 
this would have appeared under a diminutive 
single head, all in the same small type and with 
no cross-heads to relieve the mass. A vivid 
example of the altered style of display was 
afforded by the earthquake shock of 1931. When 
the last event of similar severity occurred in 
1884, two or three columns of solid minion 
appeared in The Times with one single heading 
smaller than any heading shown in Plate IV. 
The shock of the summer of 1931, however, 



ii2 SUB-EDITING 

was treated with the biggest "four-decker" 
headings, large type, and bold sectional headings. 
The style of display in Plate IV is sober but 
adequate. The main heading is well balanced, 
with two turning lines and one single. The 
introductory paragraph is set in bourgeois, 
9-point, leaded, and the main conclusion of the 
report is given an indented paragraph to em- 
phasize it. The indent is "2 and i," that is, 
the first line 2 ems and the rest i em. When the 
textual quotation from the report begins it is 
in minion, 7-point. The ordinary cross-heads 
are g-point caps. As the story is a long one, 
nearly four columns, some double cross-heads in 
bolder type are 'used to "break it up," and 
prevent monotony in appearance. The double 
cross-heads "fall right"; that is to say, they 
do not come side by side in the adjoining 
columns, but in positions which give symmetry 
and balance to the ensemble. To get these 
double cross-heads in the right positions in- 
volves an accurate estimate of the length of the 
copy by the sub-editor. He must so gauge the 
copy that he can place the first, "Ship's Final 
Movements," far enough down the second 
column to stand clear of the main head and 
introduction. The second is put where it is to 
avoid clashing with those in columns two and 
four. The ordinary cross-heads in caps are 
placed at suitable intervals. For appearance, 
the one "Effect of Gusts" in column three is too 
near the top and might well have been removed 
in making-up. The double headings do not 
carry any rules, being cross-heads only. In 



ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHY 113 

column three the table is set in ruby, 5j-point. 
The little paragraph right at the end, about the 
inquest, not being part of the official report, is 
given "after rule" a 3-em rule. 

Plate V shows the main page summary oi 
the report and is set entirely in Q-point. The 
three introductory paragraphs give briefly the 
requisite historical setting to the report and are 
indented "full out and i," i.e. first line full out 
to the column rule, and rest of paragraph i-em 
indent. The main heading is varied from the 
"away" head, both in wording and in balance, 
being one single and two turning. Being on 
the main page, the cross-heads are in black 
type (g-point titling). The style of display is 
"conservative," but the importance of the story 
and its main points are adequately treated. 

Getting Emphasis 

Next I will deal with the typographical 
methods employed for securing emphasis. 

PARAGRAPHING is, of course, one of the oldest, 
though in some ancient prints I have seen the 
"pars." run to half a column and more. To-day 
the tendency is towards shorter paragraphs, and 
in some of the "snappiest" papers one finds a 
paragraph for every sentence. In the more 
solid papers, however, paragraphs of more than 
about 20 to 25 lines are not liked. Care is 
needed in selecting the places for new para- 
graphs ; they should be where new points, new 
ideas, and new subjects begin. 

INDENTATION is very widely used, in varied 
forms, to direct the reader's attention to 

Q (G.2I2I) 



H 4 SUB-EDITING 

important passages in stories and reports. Black 
types and italics serve the same purpose, even 
more effectively, but care must be taken not to 
destroy their value by over-use. The markings 
for indents are simple when once the system of 
type measurement is understood. 

BLACK TYPE possibilities, of course, depend 
upon the resources of the office. The family of 
these types is a numerous and increasing one. 
Those that are most frequently seen in use in 
papers that adopt bold display are as follows: 
Clarendon, Jenson, De Vinne, the extensive 
Latin series, Old Face and Old-face Heavy, 
Cheltenham (a favourite), Doric, Gothic, Bodoni, 
Century and Cloister. The sub-editor soon dis- 
covers the kinds available in his office. Some 
blacks are better for tables and figures than 
others, and some match the " body founts" best. 

INTRODUCTIONS. With a big story, bold intro- 
ductions are used, giving the main points and 
the latest news. Thus it happens that the intro- 
duction and the main heads are the last to be 
written. For introductions the sentences must 
be short and sharp, giving the maximum of fact 
in the minimum of phrase. Vital points are some- 
times enclosed in black type in a "box," i.e. a 
complete border of rules inside the column rules 
(see bottom of columns i and 2, Plate VIII) ; 
another style is the "cut-off," i.e. rules at the 
top and bottom of the matter extending right 
to the column rules (see Plate IX, columns 2 
and 3 just under the picture of the ex-Kaiser). 

CROSS-HEADS. The correct placing of cross- 
heads is important. A rule in one office is that 



ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHY 115 

every cross-head must contain a fact ; this effec- 
tually kills vague and "woolly" lines. The line 
may be centred, or full out to the left ; it may be 
in ordinary capitals or in black type (roman or 
italic) and underlined with a thick rule. On the 
stone much may be done to display a story well 
by leading a few lines under each cross-head. 
In some offices the use of the two-line or drop 
letter for the opening of all big stories is com- 
pulsory. 

The permutations of type and rule are almost 
endless. The completely " modern" sub-editor 
and make-up man revel in novelties, and to 
hold one's own in this competitive business 
demands bright and original ideas, backed by 
wide technical knowledge. 

Old and New Styles 

Some later styles of display are illustrated in 
Plates VI, VIII, and IX, and Plate VII gives 
the main news page of the first issue of the Daily 
Mail, dated 4th May, 1896. A comparison of 
this with the other three plates shows clearly the 
revolution that has taken place in typographical 
display. Plate VIII shows practically the whole 
of a main page devoted to one dominating news 
story, and displayed with a great variety of 
typographical and make-up devices. 

The most striking characteristics of the 1896 
Mail page are that all the headings are single 
column; all the type is a plain body fount, 
varying very slightly in size and balance ; there 
are no indentations and no black type passages. 
Condensed titlings were much in vogue then for 



u6 SUB-EDITING 

headlines, and incidentally they made the work 
of the sub-editor easier in getting unwieldy 
words in. One of the compensations of the 
modern style is that the double column head- 
ings now in fashion give a greater scope in width, 
which more than makes up for the smaller 
number of units allowed by the bolder types. 

In the news pages of to-day the dominating 
feature is the heading extending right across 
the top, known variously as the banner, streamer, 
or ribbon. The three sample pages here shown 
have each a banner set in roman, as it happens, 
but very often bold italics are used and are 
very effective. Sizes vary usually from 24- to 
36-point, but with really startling news a banner 
on a larger scale will be introduced, as in Plate 
VIII, where an exceptionally big top line is 
necessitated by the bold typographical scheme 
of the whole page. In Plates VI and IX the 
regulation sizes appear. Note that the " splash " 
story that carries the banner follows on to it 
with only a short rule between. The other 
columns with different stories are cut off from 
the banner by plain rule. Thus the banner is 
the top line of the "splash" and the next line 
is a continuing one, following naturally as a 
subsidiary. 

So many varieties of black and other type, of 
indents and cross-heads, are employed that the 
advantage of widely-spaced copy is obvious 
because of the room it affords for the detailed 
instructions to the printer that have to be 
written by the sub-editor. Fortunately, the 
headings are standardized, and the number in 



PLATE IX 





BATTLE TO SAVE FIFTY LIVES EACH DAY 

"Fit as a Fiddle " Safety-First Army 
MR.SNOWDEN .-Ulr Of 500,000 To 
BACK FULL |jJJ?% Be Mobilised 



THREE THOUSAND HURT 
BY ACCIDENTS DAILY 



Churches, Schools and Cinemas 
Join in Campaign 



GIRL POLICE DECOY IN - 

RAID Mage Hit b '- -' 



Ball of Fin rr.-irJil'-"'"-^ 



SECRETS 

OF A FAMOUS 

SPY 



tce Rescue Midnight 
Motorist from Serpentine 




"DAILY HKRALD," 25111 APRIL, 



ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHY 117 

use for these elaborate pages is large. Bold 
italics give variety and emphasis ; for instance, 
in Plate VI the heading in column 6 "Late 
Earl Russell's 10,000" is a striking innovation 
in the Daily Mail which has quite a spectacular 
effect, due both to the type itself and to the 
white spaces of the unusual indentations. The 
report of Dean Inge's speech (columns I and 2, 
Plate VI) shows how indents and black types 
are used to bring out important passages. In 
the story in columns 4 and 5, next in importance 
to the "splash/' striking cross-heads are set in 
clear thick italic, underlined with heavy rules. 
The pictures at the tops of columns 3 and 6 are 
cut off with double thin rules, and, as the picture 
of Texas belongs to her story in column 7, there 
is no rule between it and the adjoining heading, 
the column rule being shortened for the purpose. 

The "box" is a favourite device in most 
papers for displaying important announcements 
and brief and piquant pieces of news. There is 
one at the bottom of column 2 in Plate VI ; and 
in Plate VIII there are two, in columns i and 
2. Generally the "box" is made of a double 
rule completely enclosing the matter within the 
column rules, but sometimes single rule is used. 
Mitred rule is used to get the corners exact; 
where this is not used the rules often fail to 
join properly at the angles, and a loose untidy 
appearance results. 

Plate VIII is a good example of variety in type. 
An office must have a well-furnished case room 
to execute a scheme of headings and make-up 
so unusual as this. A sub-editor experienced 



Ii8 SUB-EDITING 

enough to work on a story so important and 
intricate as this will be well informed as to the 
resources of his printer. In column 6, with the 
picture of Alfonso, is used a distinctive type to 
throw up the final message. It belongs to an 
artistic family of types which includes Canter- 
bury Text, Guildford Text, Cloister Black, Tudor 
Black, Caxtonian Black, and Old English. 



CHAPTER V 
THE ART OF THE HEADLINE 

THE character and class of a newspaper are 
plainly shown by its headlines, ranging "from 
grave to gay, from lively to severe/' There are 
many gradations in style, from bright to dull, 
from sensational to dignified. The sub-editor 
has to produce headings of the nature and 
quality demanded, and it is often the most 
difficult and anxious part of his work. A story 
may take 10 minutes to revise and prepare, and 
its headlines may take just as long to write, 
but if the effort is a good one no complaint of 
wasted time will be heard. 

A heading should bring out clearly the main 
theme of a story and reflect the "tone" of it, 
be it serious or light. The caption should "sit" 
naturally on the matter and not give an effect 
of strain or exaggeration ; neither should it fail 
to rise to the full opportunity afforded by the 
contents of the story. Opinions will differ very 
often as to what is the best point. One will 
seize upon a certain feature as being of the 
greatest "human interest," although not the 
main motif, and devote the heading to it hence, 
what some regard as "freak" headings, ex- 
ploiting a sensational, spicy, or funny point 
that is not at all essential to the main purpose 
of the story. As an instance I recall a report 

119 



120 SUB-EDITING 

of the great Whit Monday procession of Lan- 
cashire Sunday School children. This event 
dominated Manchester for the day, and ordinary 
traffic was suspended. The report started off: 
"365 women fainted while watching the pro- 
cession in Manchester yesterday . . ." The 
heading was 

365 WOMEN FAINT 



WHILE WATCHING 
PROCESSION 

MARCH OF 20,000 
CHILDREN 

Whether the fainting women were the "real 
news" or not is a matter for discussion. 

The aim should be to get into the headings 
the points of greatest interest, judged by the 
paper's standard of news. Too often a good 
story is spoiled by dull uninspired headings. 
Newspapers differ greatly in the amount of 
liberty allowed 'in headings, but the general 
tendency is towards increasing brightness and 
originality. In some cases, happily few, liberty 
is permitted to degenerate into licence. 

Contrasted methods of treating the same 
story are well shown by the extracts given 
below one from a "class" and the other from 
a "popular" paper. 



THE ART OF THE HEADLINE 121 
THE LAST TATTOO. 

RAIN, MUD, AND 
CHEERFULNESS 

(FROM A CORRESPONDENT.) 

Heavens! How it rained! It was 
raining at Waterloo when the much 
advertised, and, let it be said, most 
comfortable dinner and supper Tattoo 
train started, and it rained the whole way 
down to Aldershot spasmodic showers 
to Surbiton, torrents at Woking, and a 
steady downpour to greet us at our 
journey's end. 

70,000 CROWD 
DRENCHED 

LOCOMOTIVES AS 
CLOTHES HORSES 

HOW WOMEN DRIED 
THEMSELVES 

From OUR SPECIAL CORRESPONDENT 

ALDERSHOT, Sunday. 

The King and Queen saw an example 
of crowd heroism last night when 70,000 
people sat or stood through a torrential 
downpour of rain to watch the close of 
the Aldershot torchlight tattoo. 

Not one person in ten had brought 
an umbrella and the majority of the men 
had no overcoats. Yet the spectators, 

This is a case of "twopence plain and a penny 
coloured." 



122 SUB-EDITING 

So, too, is the following 

AERODROME FOR EVERY 
TOWN 

SIR ALAN COBHAM'S PLEA 



THE ONLY 
WOMAN 

CIGARETTE AT A 
BANQUET 

" WORSHIPFUL 
MADAM " 

Who would think that the second of these 
headings covered the report of a dinner given in 
connection with a conference for promoting the 
establishment of municipal airports? No doubt 
the sub-editorial artist who wrote it would 
regard as hopelessly humdrum the plain news 
heading (shown above it) in another paper 
on the same event. Of course, the story was 
moulded to fit the "freak" heading, but it had 
to contain a statement of the real purpose of the 
dinner, which, it is needless to say, was not to 
feature "the only woman." 

Different traditions, the tastes and standards 
of two distinct classes of readers, and varying 
types of journalism, account for the wide diver- 
sity of headings. 



THE ART OF THE HEADLINE 123 

Getting the Point 

The pages illustrated in this book afford an 
interesting study in styles. One of the most 
striking lines I have noticed was that in the 
Daily Mail, over a piece of publicity about its 
circulation: "10,000,000 pairs of eyes." An 
example from the same source shows how a 
central point is brought out and delivered, as 
it were, "with a punch." The story was about 
Yeovil as an almost horseless town 

LOOK, THERE'S A HORSE! 

TOWN THAT HAS ONLY 
A FEW LEFT 

This has the element of challenge and novelty. 
It is admittedly difficult on local papers to find 
lively headings for the constant flow of dull 
routine matter. But "Slocombe Town Council. 
Interesting subjects discussed," is capable of 
improvement; something concrete must have 
been talked about to give headline points. A 
piece of American advice has application here, 
and elsewhere: "Tell the story. Get the nub 
of the yarn in your top. Make it talk. The 
head is not merely a label; it must say some- 
thing." Agreed, but there are, of course, many 
ways of saying it. Mr. J. A. Spender puts on 
record a prize heading as a masterpiece of 
summary 

OYSTER BARS JAM QUIZ 

He was assured that it would be perfectly well 
understood in America, but interpretation is 



124 SUB-EDITING 

needed over here. The heading conveyed that 
a Congressman named Oyster opposed an 
inquiry into an alleged mishandling of a crowd 
by the police. A more pleasing sample of 
American "pep" is noted by Mr. G. K. 
Chesterton 

No journalist will complain of the journalistic necessity of 
occasionally changing a title, or especially abbreviating a title. 
If I choose to head an article, " An Inquiry into the Conditions 
of Mycenaean Civilization in the Heroic Epoch, with Special 
Reference to the Economic and Domestic Functions of Women 
Before and After the Conjectural Date of the Argive Expedition 
against Troy" if, I say, I choose to give my article some 
snappy little title like that, I really have no right to complain 
if (when I send it to The Chicago Daily Scoop) they alter the 
title to "How Helen did the Housekeeping." 

An example of overdoing an idea, and of 
crudeness in a heading, is shown in the following 
piece of copy which once came my way 

SMITHFIELD CLUB'S 130 SHOW 

"SEX DRAMA" AT ISLINGTON 

"Enterprise," the champion steer of Norwich, "Miss Butter- 
cup 3rd," the champion heifer of Birmingham, and the un- 
named heifer belonging to Sir George MacPherson Grant, 
which won the championship of the Scottish National Show at 
Edinburgh, will meet in open competition in the ring at the 
Agricultural Hall next Monday, when the Smithfield Club is 
holding its one hundred and thirtieth annual show. "These 
three aristocrats of the show ring will be judged in the most 
cold-blooded and calculated manner," said an official of the 
Club to a reporter. " It will be useless for one of the ladies to 
cast a languorous eye at the judges, or display a neatly turned 
ankle in the hope that her faults if any will be overlooked. 
It seems ungallant to try to rob Miss Buttercup, the pride of 
Birmingham, or the belle of the Scottish National Show, of 
the blue ribbon of the show ring, but it is a case of a fair field 
and no favour, and the dramatic possibilities will be out- 
weighed by the merits of perfect conformation and prime 
quality." 



THE ART OF THE HEADLINE 125 

It is often easy, but is nevertheless meretri- 
cious, to seize upon a minor point that is merely 
incidental to the main theme and base headlines 
upon it because it is catchy; it is much more 
difficult, and much sounder journalism, to bring 
within the narrow compass of a heading the 
real purpose and significance of the story, and 
to express it as brightly as possible. The chief 
sub-editor of a "class" paper, on the staff of 
which I once worked, was a devotee of bright- 
ness, fashioned, of course, by the style of his 
paper. He tersely expressed his objective in 
headlines as "dignified devil," which may be 
taken to mean liveliness without vulgarity, 
interest and effect that are real and not merely 
showy. 

"Label" Headings 

"Label" headings should be avoided. They 
produce an effect of dullness and monotony. 
Certain regular news and special feature^ may 
carry a standard head which is really a "label," 
such as Parliament, Law, Broadcasting, etc., 
but under these you will always find the topical 
line. Most of these labelled sections are placed 
on "away" pages. On the main news pages a 
"label" is not permitted; the headings must be 
instinct with vitality. One or two instances will 
suffice. The National Museums send out period- 
ically a statement of their acquisitions rather 
dry stuff, but sometimes containing a news point. 
One such list included a portrait of the late Earl 
Haig at the time of the statue controversy. The 
merely "label" heading would be 



126 SUB-EDITING 

NATIONAL PORTRAIT 
GALLERY 

RECENT ACQUISITIONS 

The topical and more acceptable heading 

A PICTURE OF HAIG 

GIFTS TO NATIONAL PORTRAIT 
GALLERY 

A better illustration of the difference is the 
following 

(i) 

EMPIRE CANCER 
CAMPAIGN 

PROGRESS IN PAST YEAR 
NEED OF FUNDS 

(2) 

NEW SERUM FOR 
CANCER 

Empire Campaign 
Developments 

GETTING NEARER A 
CURE 



THE ART OF THE HEADLINE 127 

No explanation is needed of the essential 
difference between the two. No. I is casual and 
uninformative, leaving the reader to discover 
the gist of the story ; No. 2 sets out the points 
that are of wide interest and is a real inducement 
to read the story. There are heated discussions 
at times in some sub-editorial rooms as to what 
is the real point of a story. The opinions of 
experts often differ, and so a story in the process 
of rewriting gets pulled first one way and then 
another. One day Lord Northcliffe rang up the 
news room to say that many people were wear- 
ing silk hats at Hampstead that morning and a 
reporter must be sent out on the story. 

It is the Jewish New Year, he said, and they are all wearing 
their best and going to the synagogue. Now that's a good 
story for you, if it's properly handled. It ought to be headed 
"Many tall hats at Hampstead." It's no good heading it 
"Jewish New Year." People will be captured by the heading 
about the hats . . . These are the little, well-written, out-of- 
the-way stories of which we want more in the paper. 

Short striking words are essential in bold 
headings, and the Anglo-Saxon language has a 
great fund of these. If the rules of your office 
allow (note the "if") it is a help to be able to 
use "dole" for unemployment insurance benefit 
(though the term is correct only for the un- 
covenanted benefit); "wed" for marry; "Red" 
for Bolshevist; "axe" for drastic economy 
in national expenditure; "foe" for enemy; 
"plane" for aeroplane; "Gib." for Gibraltar, 
etc. The use of nouns as adjectives causes 
scruples in some offices, though the style of 
heading known to philologists as the "agglu- 
tinate" is now largely in vogue, such as- 



128 SUB-EDITING 

POLICEMAN'S EMBANKMENT DIVE 

OXFORD SWIVEL ROWLOCKS 
EXPERIMENT 

RECLUSE MURDER TRIAL QUEUE 

LINER MAIL-BAG THEFT HUNT 
SURPRISE 

These are English uses. An American heading 
that beats them was - 

DEATH PACT LEAP FROM i8TH 
STORY 

RESULT GIN PARTY CORONER 
AVERS 

This is really an "agglutinate" that tries to 
wriggle its way into a sentence. Moreover, it 
embraces a verb, active, indicative, and present, 
and a prejudice against its employment still 
survives here and there. An example of ex- 
travagance in its use is 

BISHOP FLAYS MODERN GIRL 

which only means that his lordship criticizes 
adversely some of the erroneous ways of the 
up-to-date girl. 

Keep within the facts in your headline; do 
not be tempted to overstate for the purpose of 
obtaining dramatic effect. For instance, do not' 
write "Express train leaps rails at 70 miles an 
hour," if the highest estimate of speed in the 
story is 50 miles an hour. ' 



THE ART OF THE HEADLINE 129 

Humour in a heading is excellent if well done. 
Puns require caution. "Kitten cat-astrophe," 
"An Easter Egstasy," "Bank squally-day/' and 
lines of that character are taboo in most offices. 
Two clever lines were: "Our far flung bottle 
line" (when passengers on board a British liner 
threw the bottles overboard on reaching Pro- 
hibition territorial waters); and "No Moore" 
(when the tenth child in a family named Moore 
was christened "No"). One not quite so good 
but passable was: "Scarcity of plumbers in the 
land of leeks" (plumbers being needed in a 
Welsh town). A more cautious sample of hu- 
mour, but significant in the paper in which it 
appeared, was "High Comedy: the Graf Zep- 
pelin's Clown," heading a story descriptive ,of 
the first performance of its kind in an airship. 
Alliteration is sometimes effective, but it should 
be used with care and reserve. Shakespeare 
was an artist in alliteration, as witness : "Marry, 
this is miching mallecho; it means mischief." 

My advice to beginners is to practise the art 
of headline writing, because the skill thereby 
acquired will prove invaluable. Sit down to 
your paper, take the main head and reduce it ; 
make a subsidiary head the "splash," which 
means finding fresh ideas in the story and more 
lines. Juggle with transpositions, alternative 
ideas, varying numbers of units in the line, 
different styles to suit different papers, and so 
on. Practice makes perfect. It is the way to 
get into the small class of first-rate caption 
writers. 

10 (G. 2121) 



CHAPTER VI 
FASHIONS IN PAGE-MAKING 

THE newspapers of to-day are distinguished from 
those of earlier times by a great advance in (a) 
news organization and variety of " features," and 
(6) typographical display and elaborate make-up. 

(a) There has been a vast extension of the 
area of news. World communications have 
developed so enormously that the services of 
news within the reach of national papers are 
much more complete and comprehensive. 
"News" has a fuller and more varied inter- 
pretation, and stories are exploited much more 
vigorously and exhaustively. Anything of 
"human interest" now comes within the orbit 
of news, and an original and creative outlook 
has pushed activity into regions left entirely 
untouched in past generations. 

(b) The art of make-up has been perfected 
to give striking and original effect to the im- 
mensely varied products of news and feature 
organization. The resources of typography are 
used to the full in the service of this ever- 
expanding art, which aims not only at a pro- 
portioned expression of the inherent value of 
stories, but also at arresting the reader's atten- 
tion and interest even when the news itself is 
not of first-rate significance. 

I have placed these two dominant character- 
istics of the popular Press of to-day in the 

130 



FASHIONS IN PAGE-MAKING 131 

foregoing order because that, in my view, is their 
relative importance. The actual production of 
the news, the feature, and even the "stunt," 
comes first in order of time and also of value. 
In the store the art of the window dresser must 
always be the complement of the work of the 
inventor and the designer, and the toil of the 
field and the factory. So in the newspaper the 
one conceives, obtains, and otherwise produces 
the story and the stunt; the other designs the 
dress in which they shall appear, and decides 
the order of their precedence in display. Both 
are essential to the process of "putting over" 
to the public. 

A study of the files of the older papers shows 
that while their pages were often arid Saharas 
of type, difficult and uninviting to read, they 
contained much good material, great news, and 
fine writing. Historic events of the last century 
were recorded in classic prose of stately dimen- 
sions, which the hasty reader in the tube and 
the omnibus of to-day would be unable to 
absorb. Hence, now we have greater brevity 
coupled with more comprehensiveness and vari- 
ety, and make-up schemes which assist the hurried 
reader to find what is wanted with the minimum 
of effort. These schemes vary greatly in style, 
and the make-up artists of the advanced school 
often produce outre effects. It is surely wrong 
when news values are distorted to meet the 
requirements of theories of attractive make-up. 
Sensation-mongering of this type is apt to 
defeat its own purpose in the long run. Readers 
will not be attracted for ever by counterfeit 



132 SUB-EDITING 

thrills, i.e. news put into the exaggerated garb 
of a "machine-made" splash. The sounder 
policy, adopted by the more responsible Press, 
is to display the contents of the paper for what 
they are genuinely worth. Even if the cubist 
maker-up were brought to tears because, on a 
day when there was no news of real outstanding 
importance, the leading story were reduced to a 
single column head, without a banner and 
minus black type and indents, that would be a 
negligible incident compared with an honesty 
and sobriety of news display which would 
appeal to sensible and discerning readers. So 
much can be admitted without prejudice to the 
view that the brighter make-up methods of 
modern newspapers, used with fairness and 
discretion, are a great gain. 

In his study of Lord Northcliffe, Dr. R. 
Macnair Wilson has the following commentary 
on the subject of this chapter 

Newspaper making ... is a most subtle and most difficult 
craft. To the ordinary mind print is just print. To the mind 
of young Harmsworth, print seemed, on the contrary, a 
medium almost as sensitive as are the pigments of an artist. 
He saw associations between typesetting and authorship, 
between the nature of an article and the manner in which it 
was presented. He began to understand the immense power of 
suggestion which rests in headlines and cross-headings. He 
began to think in pages as well as in columns and lines. 

There is a real distinction between the column and the page 
of any paper. For the column gains or loses importance 
according to its position in the page. A column can be effec- 
tively "hidden" in the very middle of a page ; again, a column, 
or even a single paragraph, can be effectively "shown" in the 
same position. A given bunch of articles, if "set up" in the 
right kind of type, and placed in the right way on the page 
devoted to them, becomes something different, strangely but 
really different, from the same bunch of articles wrongly 
" set up " and wrongly ' ' shown." 

" Right " and "wrong," in this instance, however, are relative 



- FASHIONS IN PAGE-MAKING 133 

terms. There are still journalists, distinguished journalists, 
who dislike or despise the craft of the page-maker. They argue 
that an article should stand on its merits and that readers 
should not be led, or induced, to read by any kind of artifice. 
Such men seemed to Harms worth strangely uncomprehending. 
For his sole idea was to convey the contents of his paper 
swiftly and easily to the reader's mind. ' ' Right ' ' page-making, 
in his view, was the sort of page-making which most effectively 
achieved this object. Indeed, he declared once in my hearing 
that right page-making corresponded exactly to clear and 
forcible speaking. "Does anybody," he asked, "prefer a 
monotonous, indistinct voice to a musical and distinct voice? " 



Quality of Surprise 

The page-maker has won, as far as the great 
majority of British newspapers are concerned. 
I have heard the story that the new style of 
make-up was brought to London from America 
by the late Mr. S. J. Pryor, who applied at 
Carmelite House his experience of New York 
journalism. This innovation set the pace in 
this country. The result is shown effectively 
in the up-to-date pages illustrated (Plates VI, 
VIII, and IX). There was undoubtedly room for 
improvement in the make-up methods of our 
newspapers. Former generations of journalists 
were quite indifferent to display. For instance. 
W. T. Stead's famous articles on "The Maiden 
Tribute of Modern Babylon/' in the Pall Mall 
Gazette had no bold headlines ; the first of a series 
which caused a great sensation in the country 
began a few lines from the foot of a column! 
Such a thing would be impossible to-day, and 
rightly so, of course. 

In one of the intimate telephone talks recorded 
by Mr. Tom Clarke in his book, Northcliffe is 
reported as saying 



134 SUB-EDITING 

When I was 17 and working on the " stone'* I was offered 
500 a year by several London papers . . . How old is the 
man on the "stone " for the Daily Mail ? About 33, 1 think. 
Twice as old as I was when I had my first day on the "stone" 
at Coventry. Tell our man that what he wants to cultivate is 
the element of surprise on the main news page. 

The work of the make-up chief or night 
editor on a morning paper is closely associated 
with that of the sub-editors. Constant co- 
operation is essential with regard to the prepara- 
tion and the placing of stories. Hence, a sub- 
editor will inevitably come into contact with 
the stone. He may be asked to make-up a 
story he has prepared or supervised. The 
sporting and financial sub-editors regularly 
make-up their own pages. A sub-editor who 
understudies stonework, and shows facility in it, 
is on the way to advancement to an executive 
position. It must be realized that make-up is a 
special job, requiring close study, adaptability, 
and mental alertness. The prime qualification, 
I think, is a sure judgment of news values. An 
editorial conference is held in the afternoon, at 
which the chiefs of staff dissect and discuss a 
schedule of the day's news and features prepared 
by the news-editor. An estimate of length is 
given with each item, and a total of news matter 
and advertisements is reached, indicating the 
number of pages required. Perhaps on 16 pages 
the schedule shows an excess of a few columns 
and the paper is called "tight." If it is decided 
not to exceed 16 pages the night editor warns 
the sub-editors to "keep everything down/' and 
even then things are crowded out at the last 
moment, in spite of vigorous cutting on the stone. 



1'LATK XII 1 



Tin .MORNING iiisr, rrfsnu MRU 

MlT SNOWDEN'S THIRD 
BUDGET 



[Fighting 
I Madeiri 



FUND Madeira 



: n FIRST NIGHT AT 
THE OPliRA 



2d. A GALLON MORE "" <V ILW 
ON PETROL ;*MIM ,.,iMmso 



\ I AM) \ \IUS INfOMI 7\\ 

n\ , yjiu/1- 



IM)1I \R HM) HRSI INSTVIMFNT 
RUUII) GRFUIR 



INLAND REVENTIi'S GRP TO BE 
TfGHIhNED 



How the Speech 
' was Received I 



'Duke and Duchcu 
** " [RF.BEIS BOMBED B^ O f York Present 
AEROPLANES 



Portuguese Troops 



i MINED' 



THE NEW BUDGET 



SOVIH SLAVES 



"AN LSSLNTIALH DISHONtST BUDOEV 



; IdorrtkwpaHmy 
, ideas to myself 



, CharlciKhberl 

8 At i /I i 



LhberL! 



MORN1N(, I ) OSI " 



FASHIONS IN PAGE-MAKING 135 

Late News 

Very often the schedule estimates have to be 
discarded because the whole balance has been 
upset by important late news, which, of course, 
always takes precedence. Morning papers prefer 
news which is too late for the evening papers to 
cover, although, of course, important news has 
to be adequately treated, even though it has 
been in print the night before. The night- 
editor begins to plan his pages after the confer- 
ence, and for this purpose uses a "dummy/* 
which is a set of small pages (blank but for the 
column rules) stitched together up to 16 or 20 
pages or whatever the size of the paper is to be. 
If the big news increases very much, the night- 
editor has to decide whether an increase of 
size is warranted. This is a somewhat weighty 
matter, as to increase the number of pages means 
a heavy expense. The known news as indicated 
by the schedule gives the matter for a provisional 
make-up scheme for the whole paper. A dis- 
tinction must be made here between the larger 
"class" papers and the smaller "popular" 
papers. The latter, with their huge sales and 
more complicated distribution tasks, go to 
press earlier, and an increase of size after the 
night's plans have been definitely laid would be 
impossible. The other class of papers, however, 
begin machining later and would, if news of the 
first importance required the space, add pages 
to the scheduled size to cover it adequately. 
The alternative to extra pages is to wipe out 
large tracts of existing news. Each department 



136 SUB-EDITING 

has made its demand on space : law, Parliament, 
sport, finance and commerce, social and per- 
sonal, besides the general home and foreign 
news, the pictures and the special features. 
Balance has to be preserved amid these rival 
claimants to the coveted columns ; for the make- 
up editor is responsible for the production of a 
whole paper that is in harmony with the 
accepted policy and ideal, and that will stand 
the test of keen competition. It is anxious and 
responsible work, more especially when values 
are fluctuating with the incoming of fresh un- 
expected news. 

As the "away" pages are in process of being 
completed and sent to press, the most important 
stories are kept for the main news pages, and 
this involves close estimating of positions and 
quantities to provide accurately for both sets 
of pages. In the absence of an obvious story 
to hold the field, one of the later tasks is "getting 
the lead" or splash. Some popular papers seem 
to aim at distinctive "leads," which no other 
paper is likely to adopt. The element of "sur- 
prise" is involved in this, as it is also in securing 
bold contrasts in subjects and headings at the 
tops of columns. All this is part of the art, and 
great pains are often taken to secure these 
effects. The night-editor visualizes his pages 
as he designs them. The layman, or general 
reader, gets an impression of general effect, 
pleasing, arresting, or otherwise, as he surveys 
the paper, without understanding the typo- 
graphical and make-up technique involved. The 
night-editor must have the eye of the layman 



PLATE XIV 



MAKTLl l'i> 
BRANDY 



THE BUDGET WITH A SILVER LINING 



KING PUTS 
OFF HIS 
Rf.TURN 



^ A NO BURDENS ON TRADE: 
* NO FOOD TAXES 




GIRL PRINCE 

CHARMINC'S 
SPELL 



Motorists To 

Pay 2J. 

^', a Gallon 
Increase 
In Petrol 
Duty To-day 




2W)00oSWEEp , .,- 



. 

HUNT INJURED ^';i' | [; i ^;' t "" < '""''-"""'"-" K ' <1 1 ,'' 1 ";,^ 7ir;,.i/r,M,.V^i <'. 






FARMERS EXEMPT FROM NEW PROPOSALS 




HO MIRI t)N l'\RI 



SPRINGING HIS ''SURPRISE" 



Liverishness 

trouble ktni-b^ l<u kruickn 




g "rif!: " KruschenSajts 



" D\ILY UKRALD" 



136 



PLAlli AV 



MR. SNOW DEN TO SQUEEZE IXCOMK-TAX PAVERS. 



THREE-QUARTERS ' r^r^C::;' .'.'.'- 
ON JANUARY 1. 
J I-XTKA OX PITUOL. 

20000.000 RAH) ON 
KXUUNGK FUND. 

] IX T\X ON LVM) 
\AU }> IX !;. 

IX'ONOMY OR MORE 
TAXI1S NT> 




1 1 OOO.OOO IU>M1. (Oil \ 

! ,!"';^,., I U.I IN I'HOIITS 1O-I)\Y. . 



MM -< |)i M cii-s i\ss 
DlMOl \. 



'( \\MOR\HM; nt.imvc; IN 
;' \NI-;V\MMI-I;K M \DMUA. 

MIDI VM>s Hiilltl'l I \NI) 
I Mtl'l! llttl 



Kl I!) Is KOI II II 
P-r\ Story of 



. (^...^^..^MNwi) BIGGEST K ' 
1 DERBY , 

SHOKTIM' lillM.l.l. PRJXK 

-- - i MISI-BLWO.N 



V\(.l MK I V 




Anew 

EDISWXN 



lifted and re.dy lor ui In a lew 
hour.- by ny good g.rago or 
ED1JWAN SERVICE J1AIIOH 



THE DAILY MAIL" 



FASHIONS IN PAGE-MAKING 137 

and the knowledge of the technician to do his 
work efficiently. 

An Amateur Victory 

In this connection an amusing story is told in 
"Friends and Adventures" by "T," of Punch 

One adventure in printing fills me with a chuckling satis- 
faction because of the victory of amateur over professional 
which concluded it. 1 was asked in 1925 to recast the format 
of the Morning Post. Among other more fundamental changes 
I suggested removing those unnecessary little "rules" that 
divide the headlines of the same article from one another. 
White, I argued, was a better contrast than grey ; and a line 
in a space gives an effect of grey to the eye. "Impossible," 
said the technical men, "you don't understand. It's just like 
you amateurs, rushing in to teach us our job." And they 
proceeded to overwhelm me with reasons which the sequel, I 
think, excuses me from reproducing. Being a crafty soul, I 
asked Ivor Fraser, the manager, to have a double-page opening 
of the paper set both with and without these rules. The 
objectors were called in to the conference with soft guile. 

T. explained humbly that, of course, he only submitted his 
ideas subject to the criticism of the technical men, sub-editors, 
and what not. They knew; he didn't. He could only do his 
best, as invited by the board. Which of these two arrange- 
ments did they prefer? The experts looked, peered, knitted 
their brows, lit cigarettes, put on spectacles, gazed at one 
another and at T., and finally said, "But we don't see any 
difference between them!" . . . Withdrawal of body of 
experts looking exceedingly crestfallen. If I've played this 
kind of trick on " experts" once I've done it a dozen times. 

One of the broad rules of make-up is that the 
main news page must carry as many interesting 
stories as possible. There must be no tops with- 
out headlines, as there used to be in days when 
a story exceeding a column continued at the 
top of the next column. To-day it is "con- 
tinued on page umpteen/' I have seen a front 
page so elaborately decked out with banners, 
wide and deep headings, pictures, variegated 
introductions, boxes and cut-offs, that there 



138 SUB-EDITING 

was scarcely any room in any of its columns 
for a piece of the real solid story above the 
"continued" line. This must be extremely 
irritating to the reader. The new systems, as 
well as the old, have vices. In order to get the 
maximum number of strong news points on the 
main page the night-editor welcomes a plentiful 
supply of "short stuff" from the sub-editors. 
Stories that are not tops but are still of special 
value are placed "above the fold," i.e. in the 
top half of the page ; stories that have to go in 
the paper at all costs are marked "must" by 
someone in authority. 

It is impossible within my limits to enter in 
much detail into the night-editor's work. As 
the pages are locked-up "blanket proofs" are 
pulled and quickly scanned as the forme is being 
sent into the foundry. There are many mis- 
takes to be watched for, and a trained eye 
quickly detects them. One of the worst is a 
"double," i.e. giving the same news twice. 
In theory this should never happen, but it 
occasionally does, even in the bdst regulated 
offices. In revising a blanket pull of a page 
one has to watch for many things paragraphs 
dropped in the wrong place ; headings placed on, 
and paragraphs placed in, the wrong story; 
rules in the wrong place or upside down ; 
irregular placing of cross-heads; incorrect cap- 
tions to pictures; ugly "carry-overs"; inac- 
curate continuation lines ; wrong page numbers 
in cross-references ; wrong date lines at the 
heads of messages; bad balance in the dis- 
position of 'stories ; cuts not well placed in 



PLATK XVI 



MR. SNOWDEN'S S! Sn BUDGET. 



!d. A GALLON MORE m 
ON PKTUOL 




.<OMI,'IU10 ,, . . 

OM.KLM'? ewer* In 

, , ,, ,, 1M , The tendon 






FOUR CORNERS 





i iinn IN TBXIS k\ ( r ^sj cmrrtr 1 
ut\sn fcij .A- SOUTH, J 

Moull rotunr' 



THREE CORNERS 

London 

LYONS' 

CORNER HOUSES 



PLATK XVII 



TOTHKDIvU 



& C!I|ronifIc 



GENASPRIN i 

THE SAFE BRAND I 



CHANCELLOR'S LUCKY 20.000,000 



Ta \flavers Rescued by Dot far E\chaw>e / und *\\i .; 
IK T\X HI 



Hdll'MM; IN M \HKIR \ 



i i::i M li)(U)\\ 
M ^N|l 



THREE-QUARTERS MUST 

BL PAID NEXT 

JANUARY 







"Ni-:\vs CHRONICLE' 



FASHIONS IN PAGE-MAKING 139 

relation to the stories to which they belong; 
repetitions of the same word in adjacent head- 
lines ; rules cutting off the banner line from the 
story to which it belongs; "follow-on" stories 
after the wrong main story; stereos of adver- 
tisements or anything else in the forme showing 
black in the white spaces owing to insufficient 
cutting out; type "off its feet/ 1 and other finer 
points too numerous to mention. A hurried 
revision of the proof will enable many useful 
marks to be made to get the page perfected 
before it goes to the auto-plate machine, and 
often saves "getting the page back" for cor- 
rection after the printing run has started. 

When the first edition has gone to press the 
night-editor hands over the work of re-making 
certain pages for later news to his deputy (often 
a sub-editor who comes in late), who will carry 
on in the early hours until the appointed time 
for closing down. When big news "breaks 
loose" after midnight, the task of the late man 
is arduous and responsible. Many cuts have 
to be made in first edition pages, and for this 
to be done properly a quick grasp has to be 
secured of their contents. As a cut is made the 
headlines have to be watched to prevent lines 
remaining in. that relate to portions of the story 
that have been cut out. Decisions as to the 
placing of late news, the sizes of headings and 
so on, have to be taken rapidly, although they 
sometimes involve the substitution of a new 
splash story and the alteration of the balance 
of a whole page. Nevertheless, these changes, 
made under stress, are the subject of review 



140 SUB-EDITING 

and criticism in the cool light of the morning 
after. 

Comparison of Styles 

For the purpose of exact comparison of the 
styles of news treatment, typographical display 
and general lay-out, reproductions are given 
of the main pages of fourteen newspapers (seven 
London and seven provincial) of the date of 
the Budget of 1931. It is one of the days 
when the same story is the inevitable splash 
in all papers and is therefore suitable for my 
purpose. 

The subject is not "sensational" in the usual 
meaning, but it is of the first importance because 
it affects practically everybody in the land and 
is, therefore, given pre-eminence by all news- 
papers. It is interesting to all who study 
journalistic methods to observe in detail how 
it is handled by papers of all kinds. The pages 
given also serve to show, not merely the manner 
of displaying a complicated and difficult story, 
but also the play of ideas as expressed in the 
headings, arid how critical and partisan points 
are made in the terse way demanded by the 
limits of bold type. It was not easy to get into 
a sharp, clear heading the fact that the Chan- 
cellor proposed to collect three-quarters of the 
income tax on ist January, instead of one-half 
as hitherto. Note how the papers tackle this. 
Pages illustrated elsewhere in this book give 
opportunities of studying more general news 
make-up. The editor of the Daily Herald ex- 
presses the view that Plate IX "puts over" 



PLATE XVIII 



THE CHANCELLOR'S WARNING 



v ;,, ,.., ECONOMY NECESSARY OR ; ' )( h - R h j ( ^ ; 

NEW TAXATION NEXT YEAR |"""i*"ib ' ""'"-'" 



IK, HUM. 

I "-I" I 



Budget of Devices to Tide Over 
Hard Times 

EXCHANGE ACCOUNT RAIDED , 
I I-OR 20,000,000 ' 

, Howicr First Instalment of Income-Tax 
PETROL DUTY UP BY 2d. A GALLON 
Tax <>1 111. per 1 on Land Values for 1933 



KMNTS J ROM Mr SNOWDliN'S SI'LECJl 



"Tllh S( OILMAN " 



PLATE XIX 



PARLIAMENTS SESSION MR SNOWDEN'S BUDGET TEMPORARY MEASURES" 



Raids, and Expedients; Chancellor 
Marks Time \ 



2d per Gallon Increase in Petrol 

Only New Taxation 
M* FROM CALLER^ "*1^ wTwrB ifUNDS FROM DOLLAR EXCHANGE ACCOUNT 

!ll!rs^^- '''j-.-'^^V**,',^! Change in Income-Tax Collection 

!.!,7/::'*:. ; i'ri: ';.''. V.;.!.' .,,,;.' .',,:.'.;;,".. J.i TAXATION OF LAND VALUES SCHEME 



Chancellor's Plans to Meet 

the Deficit 
INSISTENCE ON ECONOMY 



MR SNOWDtN'S TINANCIAI. RFVIFW 



Bl'DGLT IN BRIEF 




POINTS FROM THE SPEECH 



GLASGOW HERALD" 



FASHIONS IN PAGE-MAKING 141 

their ideas of make-up better than the Herald 
Budget page which is given, and I agree. 

Looking at the set of Budget, pages closely, 
one notes that only two of the papers still adhere 
to the single column for the big news. The 
Times (Plate X) and the Birmingham Post 
(Plate XI) have not yet yielded to the double 
column fashion which has swept over the Press 
as a whole. They, however, admit black type 
in the matter, but use it sparingly. In The 
Times, first column, the subsidiary headings used 
for the Budget analysis are effectively shown up 
in lo-point Old Face Heavy, full out with thick 
rules under, over paragraphs indented full out 
and i em. In the table below the chief lines 
are thrown up in black. This being the main 
page, only the vital table of figures is given, but 
elsewhere a whole page of tabular matter from 
the Treasury White Paper and views on the 
Budget are given, with a cross-reference on the 
main page. Two or three other papers adopt the 
same system, but the popular papers content 
themselves mostly with the full two-column 
summary given on their main pages. They have 
no "away" pages to resort to. [I feel 'tempted 
to apologize for the use of the word "popular/* 
Some characterization is needed to indicate 
classes of papers, and one reads in the technical 
Press of "popular" and "class" papers. The 
words serve the purpose, and must not be 
taken in any invidious sense. Some papers in 
these days, like their American contemporaries, 
seem to aim at both "popular" and "class" 
appeal.] 



142 SUB-EDITING 

The Birmingham Post looks even more solid 
than The Times. It retains the old plain capitals 
of the body founts for most of its headings, but 
the leading line on its Budget story is a con- 
cession to the modern cult of black. It is the 
only paper to put some of the heaviest Budget 
tables on its main page, involving the use of the 
smallest type, which is generally banned in that 
page. All papers have a proper prejudice against 
using anything smaller than minion there. The 
restraint evident in the Birmingham Post gives 
dignity of appearance without any sacrifice of 
efficiency in news treatment. It is all a matter 
of taste and custom. 

The Daily Telegraph (Plate XII) and the 
Morning Post (Plate XIII) show how the walls 
of Jericho have fallen at the blast of the 
" modern " trumpet. Within almost recent mem- 
ory they both belonged to the older school of 
make-up; now they use all the latest gadgets. 
Unlike The Times, which preserves uniform 
character in its type as well as the single- 
column heading, they introduce a variety of 
founts, especially the Morning Post. The head- 
ing " Fighting in Madeira " is a type more usually 
found in general printing than in newspaper 
headings. The vertical rule that halves the 
double column heading in places has a pleasant 
effect in appearance and makes the matter 
more readable. Type in wide measure is more 
difficult to follow through, in reading, than 
the single column. True to its partiality for 
variety of type the Morning Post uses some dis- 
tinctive blacks throughout its double column. 



AN EMERGENCY BUDGET 

Mr. Snowden Find. Two Roosts 
to Raid 

PETROL DUTY UP 2d. 



PLATE XX 

-<TFK (.lAniHAN. TCERIMY. API 

Mk sNowm.Ns 'MS.SNOWDENAS! THI: PRINIKS [ARCTIC RESCUE! FIGHTING IN 

OPTIMIST ! IIOMi: TO-DA> 

I Unding by Punitive 

1 I to W.mUr 1 Kiml.slmun I FofCC 



Income Tax Device: You PBJ 
Three-quarter* in January 



LAND VALUES TAX IN 1933 



A " Baby " Motor-Cyclo Conccion 
Help Maker* 




Tavnlr M.llnm, ham Eichan, f Ac 



Thf Prlrof Tax and thr Car Ou'nfr 



L; MANCHESTER GUARDIAN' 



PLATE XXI 



A BUDGET WITHOUT SURPRISES 



START ON TAXATION OF \SHHT NOT \N HI. 

LAND VAU l-S M'KWII IUI "' M 

PKTROI 1)1 IV ( P K\ 2d " " "'" 

A liM ION , v , ,,, v ',s u u ,i !',;,' 

CH\V(,F IN INCOMI. f\\ PA^IIATS ' ~ "..XX. 



rltl'SHKli BY ; 'r 



SHOTS AT A 
GANGSTER 



RIVAL GUNMEN 
Sl'SI'I CThl) 




'LIVERPOOL POST AND MERCURY' 



FASHIONS IN PAGE-MAKING 143 

The Daily Telegraph keeps to the same style of 
type, and introduces Pica, 12-point, which is 
very rarely used for news, and a bold black 
type for the Budget points, giving a clear effect. 

Variety and Contrast 

Looking at the whole pages, it will be seen 
that, although pride of place is given to the 
Budget, there is a large amount of other inter- 
esting news. The policy in most papers is to 
get variety and contrast. An analysis of the 
four "popular" papers shows the following 

Daily Herald (Plate XIV), eleven different 
stories, six pictures, a solus advertisement, and a 
"house" cut-off. 

Daily Mail (Plate XV), twelve stories and 
"fillers," two pictures, a solus and "house" 
cut-off. 

Daily Express (Plate XVI), eleven stories, 
four pictures, and a solus. 

News Chronicle (Plate XVII), ten stories, a 
red-ink fudge, four pictures, a map, and a solus. 

The most distinctive display is, I think, that of 
the Daily Herald, with its four-column composite 
picture-and-type heading, and "all black" in- 
troduction, both roman and italic. This may 
suggest the value of a little restraint in display. 
The giant of the make-up arena places Ossa 
upon Pelion, as did his classic prototypes, and, 
failing to scale the heavens, is forced into further 
exploits until he can go no farther and has to 
return to simpler methods. Degree and con- 
trast are lost when all is bold, and, what is of 
great importance, space that is urgently required 



144 SUB-EDITING 

for news is wasted on masses of obtrusive type 
more suited to a poster than a newspaper. These 
extreme effects can be seen in some American 
papers ; fortunately they have not yet disfigured 
our Press to any irremediable extent. 

The Daily Herald page is an intricate piece of 
work. The Budget is a four-column story, cut 
into on the left to let in two other stories. A 
fresh news top is lost by including the picture 
of the Prime Minister as a part of the big head- 
ing. The exiguous spaces left in this page pat- 
tern emphasize the difficulty referred to else- 
where of sub-editing stories to the exact length 
required for fitting. The smaller size of the 
Herald page, than that of the other papers 
shown, makes the task all the more difficult 
when "straight" columns are not favoured. 

The Mail, Express, and News Chronicle, adopt 
the usual style of giving the lead on the left 
of the page, tacked on to a full-width banner. 
The personal note is well struck by the News 
Chronicle with its two-column box and italic 
story of "Mr. Snowden's Courage." The Mail 
has, perhaps, the neatest and most compact page, 
getting all its Budget matter into two columns, 
with a straightforward make-up plan. 

The two Scottish papers afford a fine sense of 
balance. The Scotsman (Plate XVIII), formerly 
so conservative, is now replete with banner, 
three-column splash in the centre, and black 
type in special measure. The Glasgow Herald 
(Plate XIX), has no banner, but scores with 
two double-column boxes neatly enclosing the 
briefest of Budget points, with the salient 



PLATE XXII 



NS PRI\U j, ||OM|" 

HELP INDUSTRY. ' \ FEARIJX IN . MV . DKIRA - I .I . 1 .'" 

---- timnior d hlktad j r ""J| u " '' ^ '"'" L.nd.n ,.F Utimmom ! Fl\m IliHIl I'arts 1,. 

Unemployment Issue Ignored: " und ' , '"-^ '""^ ' \\mdxor 

No Revenue Tariff. ' FORMJR LUBS MP , MOSLLXIS WVRXLD HFBTLMAPRRID | ( . v| M(((if 

- -- - Populnrty Dim,; Olfn in ' 1r ' K ..... "Vrn'j ""' ''"''" l >'^ 1 ""' "' *"** 

TAX ON LAND VALUES. " smnn " 

Petrol Tax Up: 20,000.000 Raid on 1 '.!,'" , " '" 

Kxchange Reserve Fund '''',' ''',', ' - ' 

- ' '. ' " ' ' I 

SI'CCDINX. UP Or INCOMi: ,.,.-. ' , - '" 

TAX PA^MLNT. '',>,,. 



\\IIO\AI. HALANfl 



"Tin- YOKKSIIIKI: Posi " 



PLATE XXIII 



TWOPENCE ON PETROL; TAX ON LAND VALUES. 

NEW BUDGET 'A ~DUNLOPJ7HE A7/VC> i BATTLE FOR! MR^SNOWDEN'S RAIDS 
PROPOSALS. ! * HOCK - W I MADEIRA. ] AND GAMBLES. 



20,000,000 FROM DOLLAR 1 ' roh L t 1 \ x ^ "> """"^ * ^ VIEWS AT WESTMINSTER & 

EXCHANGE ACCOUNT. 



DRAFT i*Si ?1 X 1 YEAR ' S 'HE^\\ MLLI\I,I LAND TAX BLO\\ TO TO\VN 

INCOME- T.^X UIL -STRUT- I PLANNING ^ BUILDING. 



ATTACK ON CHANLLLLOR BY 
RANKING AUTHOHin 




'\VKSTERN MAIL AND SOUTH WALLS NLW.S" 



FASHIONS IN PAGE-MAKING 145 

passages from the speech well set-out below. 
The whole page is given to the Budget, but the 
Scotsman finds two columns for other news. 

The Manchester Guardian (Plate XX) and 
Liverpool Post (Plate XXI) give four Budget 
columns, two of which are a double-column 
summary, and devote three columns to other 
news. The Yorkshire Post (Plate XXII) is 
singular in giving only two columns to the 
Budget on this page, but it is ''all black" 
varied by the use of italics with shoulder heads 
full out, and picked out with heavy rules. The 
Western Mail (Plate XXIII) presents a sym- 
metrical page. The Budget claims the two 
"wings/' and there are three columns of other 
news between them. The cut-off rule under the 
banner might have been kept to the three centre 
columns, as columns six and seven are part of 
the Budget story and could have had an orna- 
mental rule to correspond with that in columns 
one and two. The whole page is clear, balanced, 
and effective. 

One typographical point in these pages is 
worth noting, and that is the contrasts secured 
by the use of lower-case type in alternate lines 
in the headings in the Yorkshire Post, Man- 
chester Guardian, Scotsman, and Glasgow Herald. 
The effect thus obtained is more striking than 
the mere variation of point size in a heading of 
capitals. 

The I deal Size 

The larger matters of broad make-up policy 
do not come within the scope of this book, but 

XI-(G.2X2l) 



146 SUB-EDITING 

may be briefly mentioned. There is a divergence 
of view as to the use of the front page for news 
or advertisements ; this is governed by business 
considerations. Similarly, opinions vary about 
the ideal size standard or "tabloid/' There 
is no doubt that the smaller folio sizes are easier 
to handle, especially in crowded vehicles, but 
there is much to be said in favour of the larger 
sizes that still hold the field. When Northcliffe 
Newspapers acquired the Leicester Evening Mail 
it was changed from tabloid to standard. One 
of the main reasons, pointed out by the manag- 
ing director, was that it is a physical impossi- 
bility to give adequate display to the day's 
news in a small page, and that a first-class story 
means several continuations from one page 
to another, which cause as much annoyance to 
the reader as the handling of a standard size. 
It is generally admitted, however, that the 
tabloid size is right for picture papers like the 
Daily Mirror and the Daily Sketch. From the 
sub-editorial point of view it is a marvel of 
compression to get the world's news of 24 hours 
into about three pages of this size. It is done, but 
there is a drastic sacrifice of interesting detail. 
Another question of major importance is that 
of the respective spaces to be allotted to news 
and features. The pages of magazine character 
which abound in the popular papers are in- 
genious appeals to varied interests home, holi- 
day, sport, hobby, food, apparel, and all the 
rest. Women's concerns are lavishly provided 
for. So assertive do these feature pages become, 
however, that the space left for real news is 



FASHIONS IN PAGE-MAKING 147 

often unduly restricted, and loud protests are 
heard from the news and sub-editorial rooms. 
The argument that the first necessity of the 
newspaper is news cannot be gainsaid. 

Some of the most anxious moments in the 
night editor's work are associated with Royal 
illnesses and the deaths of famous people. 
When Edward VII was seized with sudden 
illness on the eve of his coronation, swift and 
drastic changes had to be made to deal with the 
new and alarming development. And when the 
life of George V was at stake the papers had to 
be prepared for the worst. The big biography 
was brought up to date and got into type, 
pages of pictures were assembled and made up, 
and everything was ready. Happily the King 
recovered, and the " pulls " of these pages re- 
main, a monument of prevision. When a notable 
person dies at a late hour, sweeping changes of 
make-up have to be made to admit the bio- 
graphy, either waiting in manuscript in "the 
morgue/' or already in type, if the subject's 
illness is known. To find a large space like this 
means either the removal of features or stories 
wholesale, or the all-round trimming down of 
news. 



CHAPTER VII 

LEGAL PITFALLS: LIBEL AND 
CONTEMPT 

MANY journalists of experience become quite 
efficient amateur lawyers. The work itself is 
the training. Reporting in the Courts is a 
liberal education for the observant man and is 
an excellent preparation for the responsibilities 
of sub-editing. The difficulty is that in this 
matter of libel there is no mathematical pre- 
cision, and two and two do not always make 
four. Yet one must have a working knowledge 
of the subject because it bears upon all forms of 
journalistic work. Is a report of a law case, 
civil or criminal, fairly balanced; is a report 
of a council or a committee, or a public meeting 
within the bounds of "privilege" ; is a comment 
"fair" in the legal sense; is a gossip note "de- 
famatory"? these are some of the questions 
that confront the sub-editor, and he should be 
competent generally to give an answer. A big 
paper has its own legal member of the staff to 
decide ; but that is not so in all offices. 

It is the border-line cases that cause the most 
anxiety and misgiving. Often the sub-editorial 
mind is torn between loyalty to the safe old 
maxim: "When in doubt leave out" and the 
desire not to lose a good piece of news. The 
best rule is undoubtedly "Safety first," because 
risky stories can be had at too great a price, 

148 



LEGAL PITFALLS 149 

and your proprietors, if they have to pay dam- 
ages in a libel action, will not appreciate the 
policy of getting all the news at the risk of it 
being dangerous. These matters unhappily are 
not always the subject of deliberation and 
choice; there is the inexplicable mistake (such 
as leaving out the little word "not") to which 
the best brain is sometimes subject, and the 
subtle libel that lurks unseen. Dead accuracy 
in the use of words is not easy, as is discovered 
when a number of men are asked for a precise 
definition. The writer may not have a full 
conception of the meaning of his words; and 
readers may take them in a different sense from 
that intended. Yet libel cases often turn on the 
meaning of words examined in an ultra-par- 
ticular way, and the intention of a writer to 
convey one meaning is no defence if the readers 
take it in another. Judges and juries interpret 
things in a way sometimes astonishing to writers 
and sub-editors. This all goes to enforce the 
need of extreme care and prevision in writing 
and passing copy for publication. 

To the mind untrained in the subject, abstract 
legal phraseology is baffling ; but the reports of 
actual cases and decisions, which bring the law 
down to concrete issues, are most helpful and 
repay careful study. Judges generally deliver 
themselves of obiter dicta, which, though not 
carrying the authority of judicial decision, 
illuminate intricate subjects. 

There is another side of the picture which 
must not be ignored. Newspapers have rights 
under the law in acting fairly for the public 



150 SUB-EDITING 

good. Knowledge is necessary to understand 
what those rights are and where they end; 
knowledge means power to use the freedom 
which English law and custom accord to the 
Press. 

What a Libel Is 

A defamatory statement constituting a libel 
or slander is a statement which exposes any 
person to hatred, ridicule, or contempt, which 
causes him to be shunned or avoided, or which 
tends to injure him in his office, profession, or 
trade. It is a libel if in writing, printing, or 
permanent form ; a slander, if spoken or (as one 
authority puts it) indicated with "significant 
gestures/' A libel may be both a civil wrong 
and a criminal offence, or either ; a slander is a 
civil wrong only. 

Get the distinction clear between the two 
classes of libel civil and criminal. Strictly 
speaking, a defamatory libel is a crime as well 
as a civil injury. Any one can bring a civil 
action for libel if he chooses, but a criminal 
prosecution against a newspaper for libel can 
only be commenced on a special order of a 
Judge in Chambers (Law of Libel Amendment 
Act, 1888, Sect. 8). The accused is entitled to 
be heard before leave to prosecute is given. 
A Judge will make no order unless he is satisfied 
that the justice of the case cannot be met by 
civil action. 

The essence of a libel as a criminal offence is 
that it tends to cause a breach of the peace. 
The State and the community are concerned in 



LEGAL PITFALLS 151 

attacks such as are termed seditious libels. 
Also, it is to be noted that a libel on an in- 
dividual may be of such a character that the 
neighbours are roused to anger and violence 
and the peace is disturbed. The punishment 
on conviction of a criminal libel may be a fine 
or imprisonment or both; the imprisonment 
not to exceed one year unless the libel is pub- 
lished maliciously and with full knowledge of its 
falsity, when two years is the maximum term. 

In civil cases the aggrieved party issues a 
writ for libel, and if publication is proved the 
legal presumption is that he has suffered 
damage, the amount of which is assessed by the 
jury, unless the defendant can establish legal 
justification or excuse for the libel. 

Libel may be perpetrated by any person and 
not newspapers alone. It need not be in writing 
or printing. For instance, a statue, a caricature, 
an effigy, chalk marks on a wall, signs or pictures, 
such as fixing up a gallows on a man's door, 
painting him in a shameful or ignominious 
manner, inscribing on the gate of a farmer 
"this man shot a fox" these have been held 
to be libellous. 

In order to be defamatory in the legal sense 
the words must refer to some particular in- 
dividual, and the plaintiff must prove that he 
is the individual attacked. There must be a 
definite imputation on a definite person. If 
one wrote "All lawyers are thieves," no par- 
ticular lawyer could sue, there being nothing 
pointing directly to him. 

Sir Hugh Fraser (afterwards Mr. Justice 



152 SUB-EDITING 

Fraser) in his valuable "Compendium of the 
Law of Torts," wrote 

The words complained of must concern the plaintiff himself. 
They must affect his character or touch him in the way of his 
profession or trade. If they are directed solely at the plaintiff's 
goods or his title to property, though an action may lie therefor, 
it is not an action for libel or slander, but "an action on the 
case for special damage sustained by reason of the speaking or 
publication." In some cases, however, an attack on a man's 
title to property or goods may also injuriously affect his reputa- 
tion. Thus, it is libellous to write and publish of a bookseller 
that he sells immoral poems ; and to say of a wine merchant 
that his wine is poisoned, or of a tea dealer that his tea is made 
green by drying it on copper, or of a fishmonger that he is in 
the habit of selling decomposed fish, is a slander upon him in 
the way of his trade. 

A Dangerous Idea 

But it must be made clear that the idea that 
so long as no names are mentioned you can say 
what you like is dangerous. You cannot libel 
a class. It is safe to say "All company pro- 
mpters are swindlers/' but not to print "All 
the directors of XYZ & Co. are swindlers." 
Any one of those directors could sue for libel. 
Mr. G. F. L. Bridgman, standing counsel to the 
National Union of Journalists, in "Legal Head- 
lights for Pressmen," crystallizes the matter 
thus: "You cannot libel a large class, but if 
you libel a small class you tend to libel each 
one of its members." I can imagine the dis- 
tinction between large and small causing much 
heart-searching in sub-editorial rooms. 

The whole question of what may be called 
"group" or "collective" libels is beset with 
difficulty. Although no person is specified it 
is possible to commit a criminal libel on a body 
of individuals, if the effect is to excite against 



LEGAL PITFALLS 153 

a class the hatred of their neighbours. For 
example, it is simple to understand that a 
violent attack on the Jews of Whitechapel, or 
the Roman Catholics of Belfast, might lead to 
disorder and be regarded as a criminal offence. 
In one case an editor was prosecuted for pub- 
lishing a defamatory attack on the whole of the 
clergy in a particular diocese, although no clergy- 
man was mentioned by name. Such cases are 
criminal, and not civil, libels. If a plaintiff 
satisfies the jury that he was referred to in 
words complained of, he succeeds, even if no 
name was mentioned, but initial letters, aster- 
isks, or a fictitious name were given, or the 
reference was to a group of which the plaintiff 
was a member. If the readers of the libel know 
who is aimed at, the injury is the same as if 
the name were printed. Where it is uncertain 
whether the plaintiff was the party aimed at an 
action fails. 

A Famous Case 

The danger of using names in print (whether 
fiction, sketches of social life, correspondents' 
messages or what not), where the matter is at 
all risky, was effectively brought out in the 
celebrated case of "Jones v. Hulton," in 1909. 
An article printed in the Sunday Chronicle 
described gay doings at "Motor Mad Dieppe" 
and, mentioning the name " Artemus Jones," the 
writer went on "Really, is it not surprising 
how certain of our fellow countrymen behave 
when they come abroad? Who would suppose 
by his goings-on that he was a churchwarden 



154 SUB-EDITING 

at Peckham?" The curious fact was that the 
plaintiff, a barrister, formerly a journalist, had 
been an habitual contributor to newspapers 
published by the defendants, his articles being 
signed "T. Artemus Jones/' or "T.AJ." It 
was proved that he was not a churchwarden 
at Peckham. The writer of the article (the 
Paris correspondent of the paper) declared that 
he did not know, and had never heard of, the 
plaintiff, and that the name he used was sug- 
gested by the name of Artemus Ward and was 
only intended to represent a type. 

Mr. Justice Channell in his summing-up, said 

The real point is, ought or ought not sensible and reasonable 
people reading this article, to think it was a mere imaginary 
person such as Tom Jones, Mr. Pecksniff as a humbug, Mr. 
Stiggins, or any of that sort of name that one reads of in litera- 
ture and as types. If you think that any reasonable person 
would think that, it is not actionable at all. If on the other 
hand, you think that people would suppose it to mean some 
real person . . . and those who know of the existence of the 
plaintiff would think that it was the plaintiff, then the action is 
maintainable. 

The jury awarded the plaintiff 1,750 dam- 
ages, and in giving judgment the Judge said 
that the amount was heavy, but the jury were 
entitled to think that there had been reckless- 
ness on the part of the defendants. The judg- 
ment was affirmed both by the Court of Appeal 
and the House of Lords. I have given space to 
this case because it is a sort of landmark in the 
libel landscape. 

Defaming the Dead 

It is sometimes said that you cannot libel 
the dead. This may be true in the literal sense, 



LEGAL PITFALLS 155 

but an important reservation must be made. 
If the libel can be treated in the criminal sense, 
i.e. as likely to cause a breach of the peace, it 
is a punishable offence. The textbooks tell us 
that it is an offence to publish words defamatory 
of a dead person if it is done with a malevolent 
purpose to vilify the memory of the dead, and 
with a view to injuring his descendants. "A 
publication tending to disturb the minds of 
living individuals, and to bring them into 
contempt and disgrace by reflecting upon 
persons who are dead, is an offence against the 
law." 

There is danger, too, in premature obituary 
notices, which are not a very great rarity. A 
living person who reads the published memoir 
of himself may find a libel in it. Thus, be sure 
of the name and the fact when the news of a 
death comes along. Writers of biographies of 
persons reported to be dead, and of those who 
are indubitably dead, do well to remember the 
maxim de mortuis nil nisi bonum. 

Meaning of Words 

It has been held libellous to write of a man 
that he is a man of straw a hypocrite, a rascal, 
an impostor, that he is dishonest, ungrateful, 
impecunious, insane, and even, in one case, that 
his conduct has been unfeeling. So, too, ironical 
praise may amount to a libel, and it has been 
held libellous to publish in a newspaper a story 
in which the plaintiff is made to appear ridicu- 
lous, even though he has told it himself in the 
first instance. It is libellous to publish a story 



156 SUB-EDITING 

of no literary merit as having been written by 
an author of standing. On the other hand it has 
been held not libellous to write of a man that 
he sued his mother-in-law in a County Court, 
for he may properly have done so; or that he 
owes money, for this does not imply that he 
cannot pay his debts. 

The meaning of a printed statement is, as I 
have already indicated, often the subject of 
doubt and discussion. Cases not infrequently 
turn upon it. To decide whether the statement 
is libellous the Courts construe it in its "natural 
and ordinary meaning''; if it is not libellous 
in that sense, the question is the special sense 
in which it was understood by those who read 
it. The criterion is what construction a reason- 
able person would put upon the words. Where 
both an innocent and a guilty interpretation 
of the words may be made, the *jury has to 
determine the sense in which they were in fact 
understood. The onus of proving the special, as 
distinct from the natural and ordinary, meaning 
is upon the plaintiff. 

"Story " in a Headline 

A most interesting case fought over the 
meaning of a word was the action brought 
against Hulton & Co. 19 years ago for a head- 
line, published by them, "Student's Legacy 
Story." It was the heading to a case at Bow 
Street. For the plaintiff it was admitted that 
the report without the heading was innocuous, 
but it was alleged that the headline would con- 
vey to the reader that the plaintiff was telling 



LEGAL PITFALLS 157 

a cock-and-bull story to the magistrate about a 
legacy, and that in making the statement he 
was guilty of perjury. The defendants pleaded 
that the word " story " bore the ordinary and 
fair meaning of "narration" or "recital" and 
was in no sense disparaging to the plaintiff. 
The special jury in the King's Bench Division 
gave a verdict for the plaintiff with 10 dam- 
ages, and judgment was entered accordingly. 
The case was taken to the Court of Appeal, and 
the newspaper won. 

Lord Justice Scrutton said the question was 
whether the language used was reasonably 
capable of a defamatory meaning. Suspicious 
people might get a defamatory meaning out of 
even "chops and tomato sauce," but it was not 
sufficient to suspect that there might be a 
defamatory meaning. He added that in his 
opinion the headline suggested that there was 
something interesting behind. Lord Justice 
Atkin said that to treat the word "story" as 
one of a defamatory meaning would seriously 
restrict the vocabulary of journalists and deprive 
them of one of their best words. He thought 
that the word merely connoted an interesting 
event worth narrating. 

A newspaper sued for libel cannot defend 
itself successfully on the ground that the words 
were published by accident or mistake, or in jest, 
or with an honest belief in their truth. Thus, 
if a possibly libellous statement is to be pub- 
lished and that is a grave decision to take 
complete verification of its truth should be 
obtained, for in Court mere belief is not enough, 



158 SUB-EDITING 

and the truth of the whole statement must be 
shown. Neither is it a defence to plead that a 
libel was simply a repetition of what some one 
else had printed or said, no matter what the 
other authority was. Hence, it sometimes hap- 
pens that when a libel has been "lifted" by a 
number of papers a whole chain of libel actions 
ensues. 

Corporations and Companies 

Is it possible to libel a corporation or a com- 
pany? On this question I will note two cases. 
In 1891 the Corporation of Manchester sued for 
a libel contained in a letter published in a news- 
paper charging it with corruption. The Court 
of Queen's Bench held that the Corporation 
could not bring an action on a libel of that 
description. In 1894, in the action of the South 
Hetton Coal Company against a newspaper, it 
was held that the company could, without 
alleging or proving special damage, maintain an 
action in respect of a libel reflecting on the 
management of their trade and business. The 
paper published an article, "The Homes of the 
Pitmen: South Hetton/' describing a village as 
being nearly unfit for habitation, and its houses 
insanitary. The paper pleaded that the state- 
ments by its special commissioner were bona 
fide comments on a matter of public interest, 
made honestly and without malice, and that 
in their natural meaning they were true. At 
the hearing at Newcastle the Lord Chief Justice 
held that the matter was one of public interest 
and asked the jury whether the comment went 



LEGAL PITFALLS 159 

beyond what was fair. He directed the jury 
that if they found that the comments were 
unfair and that the statements went to the 
discredit of the plaintiffs, the action would lie. 
The jury found for the plaintiffs; damages 
25. The defendants applied to the Court of 
Appeal for a new trial, but the application was 
dismissed. The Master of the Rolls (Lord Esher) 
said he agreed with the Lord Chief Justice that 
the matter was of public interest, but the person 
who criticized must do so with moderation. He 
was not prepared to say that if he had been on 
the jury he would not have found it to be a fair 
description or fair comment; but also he was 
not prepared to say that the jury were not 
entitled to find that it was not a fair description 
and therefore a libel. The Court could not 
therefore disturb the verdict of the jury. Lord 
Justice Lopes expressed the opinion that though 
a corporation could not maintain an action for 
libel in respect of anything reflecting upon them 
personally, yet they could maintain an action 
for a libel reflecting on the management of their 
trade and business. The words complained of 
must attack a corporation or company in the 
method of conducting their affairs must accuse 
them of fraud or mismanagement, or must attack 
their financial position. The question whether it 
was fair comment was peculiarly a question for 
the jury. 

Defences: Justification 

The chief defences in a libel case are : justifica- 
tion, privilege, fair comment, and apology. 



160 SUB-EDITING 

In a civil case the libel is justified if the words 
are true in substance and in fact. It was laid 
down by a Judge that, "The law will not permit 
a man to recover damages in respect of injury 
to a character which he either does not or 
ought not to possess/' The duty of proving the 
truth of the libel is upon the defendant; and 
the plaintiff has not to prove that it is untrue. 
Exaggerated statements, though possessing a 
modicum of truth, are dangerous. Thus a 
journalist who had libelled one man and paid 
damages succeeded in an action against a paper 
that called him a "libellous journalist." A 
similar case was that in which damages were given 
for the printing of the headline "How Lawyer 
B Treats his Clients," when the case reported 
concerned only one client. In another headline 
case damages were awarded when the words 
used, "Shameful Conduct of an Attorney," were 
held to be not justified by the report of the case, 
the accuracy of the report being admitted. 

Privilege 

It is highly important that journalists should 
understand what the privilege is that is enjoyed 
by newspapers and what are its limits. It 
applies to reports of Parliament, judicial pro- 
ceedings, naval, military, and State proceedings, 
public meetings, and statements from Parlia- 
mentary and official papers. 

The case of "Wason v. Walter" in 1868 
established the privilege in newspaper reports of 
Parliament. The action was against The Times 
for a report of a debate in the House of Lords 



LEGAL PITFALLS 161 

containing statements defamatory of an indi- 
vidual. It was held that reports of Parliament 
were privileged upon proof of their accuracy. 
In dismissing the action Lord Chief Justice 
Cockburn said that Parliamentary reports were 
privileged on the same principle that an accurate 
report of proceedings in a Court of Justice 
was privileged, namely, that the advantage 
of publicity to the community at large out- 
weighed any private injury resulting from the 
publication. 

The privilege enjoyed by Judges in Court 
and by Members of Parliament in their debates, 
is absolute; that enjoyed by those who print 
reports of judicial and Parliamentary proceed- 
ings is qualified only by the rule that such 
reports must be fair and accurate, and that they 
must be made without malice. Legally, malice 
is an improper motive, and the onus of its 
proof is on the plaintiff in an action. 

The Law of Libel Amendment Act of 1888 
provides that "a fair and accurate report in any 
newspaper of proceedings publicly heard before 
any Court exercising judicial authority shall, 
if published contemporaneously with such pro- 
ceedings, be privileged, but not so as to authorize 
the publication of any blasphemous or indecent 
matter." 

It must be noted that privilege is confined 
to Courts recognized by the law. For instance, 
a meeting of the London County Council for 
granting music and dancing licences is not a 
Court exercising judicial functions, and proceed- 
ings before licensing justices are administrative 

12 (G.2I2I) 



162 SUB-EDITING 

and not judicial. In this class of proceedings 
privilege is qualified. 

From what has been said it will be seen that 
newspaper reports of proceedings in the Courts 
of Justice, to be secure, must be (a) fair and 
accurate; (b) not prohibited by Order of the 
Court, and (c) not blasphemous, seditious, or 
obscene. 

The x proceedings must be in open Court 
and the report confined to what is publicly 
heard. There must be impartial record of both 
sides of a case. Where a case lasts several 
days it is inevitable that one side will on occa- 
sion have the advantage, but that, of course, is 
balanced when the other side duly has its in- 
nings. It is usual on each day to preface the 
reports with a brief statement of the case for 
both sides. Reports of continuing cases are 
privileged, but there must, of course, be no 
comment until the decision has been reached. 
These conditions make legal reporting and sub- 
editing very difficult and delicate at times, 
especially in the case of evening papers, whose 
earlier editions contain only partial reports of 
a day's hearing. Headlines demand utmost 
skill and caution. Condensation must preserve 
"balance," and watch must be kept for opening 
statements by counsel which may not be borne 
out by the evidence. These rules equally apply 
to reports of inquests and public inquiries. 

The Divorce Court 

The restrictions imposed on the reporting of 
divorce and other cases by recent legislation 



LEGAL PITFALLS 163 

must be noted. The Judicial Proceedings (Regu- 
lation of Reports) Act, 1926, prohibits 

(a) In any judicial proceedings any indecent matter or 
medical or surgical details tending to injure public morals. 

(b) In any proceedings for divorce, nullity, judicial separa- 
tion or restitution of conjugal rights, any particulars except: 
(T) names, addresses, and occupations of parties and witnesses ; 
(2) concise statement of charges and defence ; (3) submissions 
on points of law ; (4) the judge's summing up, the jury's verdict, 
and the judgment of the Court, with the judge's observations in 
giving judgment. 

Public Meetings 

The Law of Libel Amendment Act, 1888, 
specifically recognized the rights of the Press, 
and it has been termed the Journalists' Magna 
Charta. Section 4 may be quoted in full 

A fair and accurate report published in any newspaper of the 
proceedings of a public meeting or (except where neither the 
public nor any newspaper reporter is admitted) of any meeting 
of a vestry, town council, school board, board of guardians, 
board or local authority formed or constituted under the 
provisions of any Act of Parliament, or of any committee 
appointed by any of the above-mentioned bodies, or of any 
meeting of any commissioners authorized to act by letters 
patent, Act of Parliament, warrant under the Royal Sign 
Manual, or other lawful warrant or authority, select com- 
mittees of either House of Parliament, justices of the peace in 
Quarter Sessions assembled for administrative or deliberative 
purposes, and the publication at the request of any Govern- 
ment Office or department, officer of State, commission of 
police, qr chief constable, of any notice or report issued by 
them for the information of the public, shall be privileged, 
unless it shall be proved that such a report or publication was 
published or made maliciously. 

Provided that nothing in this section shall authorize the 
publication of any blasphemous or indecent matter. 

Provided also, that the protection intended to be afforded by 
this section shall not be available as a defence in any proceed- 
ings if it shall be proved that the defendant has been requested 
to insert in the newspaper in which the report or other publica- 
tion complained of appeared, a reasonable letter or statement 
by way of contradiction or explanation of such report or other 
publication, and has refused or neglected to insert the same. 



164 SUB-EDITING 

Provided further, that nothing in this section contained shall 
be deemed or construed to limit or abridge any privilege now 
by law existing, or to protect the publication of any matter 
not of public concern, and the publication of which is not for 
the public benefit. 

For the purposes of this section "public meeting" shall 
mean any meeting bona fide and lawfully held for a lawful 
purpose, and for the furtherance or discussion of any matter 
of public concern, whether the admission thereto be general or 
restricted. 

It will be noted that the last sentence defining 
a " public meeting " is not very clear or con- 
clusive, and the careful sub-editor will jealously 
scrutinize the report of any meeting when its 
public character is not obvious. I will not 
attempt, as a layman, to define legal doctrine 
here. That is the duty of the lawyers. 

Fair Comment 

In order to justify any comment it makes, 
a newspaper has to show that it is fair comment 
on a matter of public interest. The cases decided 
show that the law permits a reasonable liberty. 
In an action it is for the Judge to say whether 
the matter is of public interest, and if he is of 
opinion that there is some evidence of unfair- 
ness, the jury has to find whether, in fact, it is 
so. If the Judge holds the view that there is no 
evidence on which a verdict could be rationally 
founded that the comment is unfair, he can 
stop the case. It is essentially a matter for the 
exercise of common sense and an unbiased 
mind by the journalist in keeping within the 
bounds of fair criticism. 

On this point the following pronouncement 
by a Judge is valuable. 



LEGAL PITFALLS 165 

Nothing is more important than that fair and full latitude 
of discussion should be allowed to writers upon any public 
matter, whether it be the conduct of public men or the pro- 
ceedings in Courts of Justice or in Parliament, or the publication 
of a scheme or a literary work. But it is always left to a jury to 
say whether the publication has gone beyond the limits of a 
fair comment on the subject-matter discussed. A writer is not 
allowed to overstep these limits. 

What is "matter of public interest"? Sir 
Hugh Fraser gives the following answer in 
summary form 

1. All State matters; everything which concerns govern- 
ment, either House of Parliament, or any committee thereof. 

2. The public conduct of every one who takes part in public 
life, but not the private conduct of such persons, save in so 
far as it affects their public relations. 

3. Legal and ecclesiastical matters. 

4. The management of the poor and the administration of the 
poor law. 

5. Places of public amusement or entertainment. 

6. Literature, but not the private character of an author or 
journalist. 

7. Art. 

8. Anything, in short, which invites public attention or 
criticism. 

The foregoing catalogue is based throughout 
on decided cases. No 4 might be expanded 
to-day, in view of recent developments in 
national and local government, to include the 
new authorities now established. 

Apology 

The fourth defence mentioned is apology. 
It is provided in Lord Campbell's Libel Act of 
1843 that in an action for libel contained in any 
public newspaper or other periodical publica- 
tion, it is a good defence to prove that such 
libel was inserted without actual malice and 
without gross negligence, and that before the 



166 SUB-EDITING 

commencement of the action, or at the earliest 
opportunity afterwards, the defendant inserted 
in the paper a full apology for the libel, or that, 
if the paper in which the libel appeared should 
be ordinarily published at intervals exceeding 
one week, he offered to publish the apology in 
any paper to be selected by the plaintiff. Also, 
there must be a payment of money into Court 
by way of amends. None of the other defences 
(justification, privilege, fair comment) can be 
pleaded together with the plea of apology. 

A study of libel cases decided in the Courts 
is both instructive and useful for the journalist, 
who has to watch his points. I will quote a few 
cases of special interest. 

Libel by Inference 

A married woman, the wife of a racehorse 
owner, claimed damages against a picture paper 
for libel by publication of a photograph of her 
husband and a single woman with a gossip note 

in these words: "Mr. C [the plaintiff's 

husband], the racehorse owner, and Miss , 

whose engagement has been announced/ 1 The 
plaintiff contended that the published picture 
and words meant that her husband had become 
engaged to be married to the lady named, and 
that he was not a man bound in lawful wedlock 
to the plaintiff, and that the plaintiff lived in 
adultery with him. The defendants denied that 
the words published bore the meaning alleged, 
and contended that they did not constitute a 
libel. They also said that the words in their 
natural and ordinary significance were true in 



LEGAL PITFALLS 167 

substance and in fact. It appeared that two 
other actions had been brought against news- 
papers in respect of publication of this photo- 
graph and had been settled on certain payments 
by the defendants. 

In evidence for the defence the representative 
of the agency that supplied the photographs 
said that at Hurst Park races Mr. C. informed 
him that he was engaged to the lady who was 
with him. The witness asked if he could publish 
the news of the engagement with a photograph 
of the lady that had been taken. Mr. C. replied 
" Yes," but said that he did not like the photo- 
graph which had been taken. He called the 
lady over and together they posed for the photo- 
graph which was published. The witness said 
he had never heard whether Mr. C. was or was 
not married, and it never entered his mind to 
ask a question about it. 

The Judge said that no one suggested that 
the paper did not act with the utmost honesty, 
but if in fact one defamed a person, one was 
liable in damages. If the paper had said: "This 
is a picture of the bachelor racehorse owner who 
has just become engaged to be married," there 
was no doubt what that would convey to reason- 
able people who knew that Mr. C. and the plain- 
tiff had lived together, and that he had con- 
tinued to visit her. The question was whether 
the words complained of mean the same thing 
namely, that Mr. C. was a bachelor, free from 
marriage ties and able to marry this young 
woman. There was no malice on the part of 
the paper, but although afterwards informed 



168 SUB-EDITING 

that the plaintiff was married to Mr. C., they 
had not admitted it in their defence, and left 
her to prove the marriage in Court. 

The jury found for the plaintiff with 500 
damages, and the judgment entered accordingly 
was confirmed on appeal. The perils to news- 
papers disclosed by this case are obvious. It 
would be possible to trap papers into libellous 
statements which might deceive the most care- 
ful. "Personal" journalism, gossip matter, and 
pictures are beset with dangers. 

Rights of the Press 

A clear and outspoken declaration from the 
Bench on the rights of the Press is worth putting 
on record. 

At Carmarthen Assizes in June, 1930, a libel 
action was brought by the secretary of a trade 
union branch against a newspaper, complaint 
being made of articles headed "The Giant's 
Strength/' "Workmen Turned Adrift," and 
"Trades Union Tyranny," and also of a leading 
article which dealt with the alleged expulsion 
of fourteen members of the union, causing them 
to lose their employment. There were refer- 
ences in the article to "Union Mandarins" and 
the "tyrannical and callous" action of union 
'officials. The defendant pleaded that the words 
had no defamatory meaning and were fair com- 
ment made in good faith and without malice. 
The jury returned a verdict for the defendant. 

MR. JUSTICE ROCHE, in summing up, said he thought that 
fair comment was the real point of importance to the general 
public. Juries might not lightly put a limit to fair criticism. 
The Press had the right of criticizing on accurate facts the 



LEGAL PITFALLS 169 

attitude and action of people like trade union leaders dealing 
with matters of public importance. It was the business of the 
Press to look into abuse and to find fault and criticize on 
behalf of the public. There was an old saying, "It is no use 
keeping a dog and doing the barking yourself/' There were a 
number of dogs which barked at different times ; and as long 
as they did it honestly they were exercising a useful function. 

Papers, like Truth and John Bull, that deliber- 
ately embark upon the exposure of scandals of 
all kinds in the public interest, have to be very 
s.ure of their facts, so that the defence of truth 
and justification in the case of a libel action 
may be put forward with a good prospect of 
success. One or two legal decisions may be 
given to indicate the kind of criticism and ex- 
posure that has been vindicated. 

Successful Exposures 

An attack on a matrimonial agency by John 
Bull led to an action. The plaintiff said that by 
the words complained of the defendants meant 
that he was obtaining money from young girls 
by falsely representing to them that he would 
introduce them to men who wished to get 
married ; that he knowingly introduced to young 
girls who wished to get married men who in- 
tended not to marry but to seduce them ; that he 
extorted money from poor people and did not 
render the services he had contracted to render; 
that he was a cheat, an unscrupulous impostor, 
a hypocrite, a rascal, a thief, and a criminal; 
that his character was infamous; and that he 
was guilty of the offence of obtaining money by 
false pretences. The plaintiff said that in conse- 
quence of the alleged libel he had been held up 



170 SUB-EDITING 

to ridicule, odium, hatred, and contempt, and 
that the business in which he was interested had 
been injured. The defendants did not admit 
that the articles bore the alleged meaning. 
Further, or alternatively, they pleaded that the 
words were true in substance and in fact. 

After hearing evidence on both sides, Mr. 
Justice Avory, in summing up, said the broad 
issue was a serious one. It was serious for the 
plaintiff, but it was also serious from the public 
point of view because, if the allegations which 
had been made against the plaintiff were true, 
it was not only well that his business should be 
damaged, but also that it should be closed 
down altogether. It might be that in the 
articles there were what might be called "jour- 
nalistic touches/' but that did not affect the 
broad question which the jury had to determine. 
The jury returned a verdict for the defendants, 
and judgment was entered accordingly. 

John Bull scored another success when pro- 
ceeded against by the proprietor of a restaurant 
in Soho (a coloured man). The article com- 
plained of was headed "Terrible Negro Haunt. 
Cafe that Must be Closed," and alleged that the 
place was a "rendezvous for coloured criminals 
of every description and ought to engage the 
immediate attention of the police." The paper 
admitted publication and pleaded justification. 
The verdict and j udgment were for the defendants . 

A Fearless Unmasking 

The campaign of the Daily Mail against 
"share- pushers" is well within memory. The 



LEGAL PITFALLS 171 

fearless attitude of that paper under the threat 
of proceedings was expressed in the follow- 
ing article on 23rd December, 1927, the writ 
therein mentioned having been issued eight days 
before 

The British public will be surprised to learn that Jacob 
Factor, the notorious share pusher, who found England too hot 
for him after the Daily Mail exposure, is once again back in 
London. Through his solicitors, Messrs. Zeffertt and Heard, of 
17 Coleman Street, London, E.G. 2, he has issued a writ against 
the Daily Mail claiming damages for libel. 

We thought we hacjl succeeded in chasing this arch-swindler 
back to his haunts in America for good, but it appears that he 
has managed to get into this country again and is living for 
the time being at 91 Jermyn Street, London. 

The writ is issued in the name of John Factor. His solicitors 
have informed Messrs. Lewis and Lewis, who act for the Daily 
Mail in these matters, that he is the Jacob Factor with whom 
we are familiar. His fraudulent share dealings have been 
repeatedly exposed in this newspaper and in our courageous 
contemporary, Truth. 

If Jacob Factor imagines that the issuing of the writ will 
muzzle us while he is engaged on some new deal he is labouring 
under a misapprehension. 

Contending that this article was calculated to 
interfere with the administration of justice, the 
plaintiff obtained a rule nisi for a writ of attach- 
ment for alleged contempt of Court against Mr. 
W. G. Fish, editor of the Daily Mail. The writ 
of I5th December was based on an article pub- 
lished on that date referring to James Mont- 
gomery, who had been sentenced to hard labour 
at the Old Bailey, as "a leader of the gang of 
share-pushing pests who, in association with the 
notorious Jacob Factor, have for several years 
been defrauding people all over Great Britain." 

The Court discharged the rule nisi against the 
editor. In delivering judgment the Lord Chief 
Justice said 



172 SUB-EDITING 

The editor of the Daily Mail had contended that the present 
case was one in which the writ for libel was not issued by 
Factor with the genuine intention of proceeding to trial and 
clearing his character of the aspersions cast on it by the article 
of 1 5th December, but was issued to enable him to procure 
immunity from further attacks while the action was pending. 
It appeared from Mr. Fish's affidavit that, from 6th March, 
1926, to 24th July, 1926, the Daily Mail published a series of 
articles attacking the applicant under the name of "Jacob" 
Factor. The language was unequivocal. It included such ex- 
pressions as "smooth-tongued thief," "arch-swindler," "out- 
and-out swindle," "fleecing the public," "career of fraud," 
"robbing the unwary," and "confidence dodge." Those 
attacks ceased only when Factor left the country. 

Factor, however, took no proceedings on any of them, de- 
famatory though all of them undoubtedly were. Nor had he, 
in the proceedings now pending, made any complaint of any 
of those charges made against him. On the contrary, in his 
statement of claim his complaint was most carefully confined 
to the allegation that he was carrying on his frauds in con- 
junction with Montgomery . . . The Court found it impossible 
to believe that an action so framed could have been launched 
in order that a jury might vindicate Factor's character and 
award damages for the injury done to it the avowed and 
legitimate object of an action for libel. That view was em- 
phasized by the fact that the article of 23rd December was full 
of defamatory matter and yet no writ for libel had been issued 
in respect of it. It was also emphasized by the language of 
Factor's affidavit in support of the rule, which again was care- 
fully framed to deny specifically only so much of the allegations 
complained- of in the alleged libel as charged an association of 
Factor with Montgomery. 

The Court was not satisfied that the article of 23rd December 
coming as it did, after a long series of similar articles ; being 
but a repetition of charges already often made against Factor 
and not complained of; and avoiding, as it did, any further 
mention of the alleged association of Factor with Montgomery 
was calculated to prejudice the trial of the only issues which 
Factor had chosen to raise namely, that of his association 
with Montgomery and of the damages which he should obtain 
if that issue were found in his favour. In those circumstances 
the case was not one in which the Court would intervene. On 
the contrary ... if half of what the Daily Mail had Said about 
Factor (which had not been complained of by him) were true, 
it was very much for the public benefit that his unmasking 
should not be delayed. The discharge of the rule was not to be 
taken as authorizing the Daily Mail to publish further and 
different charges against Factor up to the trial of the action, if 
it should be proceeded with. 



LEGAL PITFALLS 173 

The threatened libel action did not come 
into Court, and following the judgment in its 
favour the Daily Mail, in a leading article, 
said 

The real point involved in the motion was this : Whether it is 
permissible for a newspaper, in certain circumstances, to con- 
tinue exposing a man whom it has previously exposed in its 
columns, notwithstanding the fact that the man has issued a 
writ for libel against the newspaper in respect of another matter. 
If the Court had not taken the view which it took yesterday, it 
would in effect have created a rogues' charter. . . . Factor's 
action for libel against the Daily Mail is still pending, and there- 
fore that particular issue cannot be discussed as yet. But the 
whole case illustrates the duty of a great newspaper to the 
public, and the vastly extended range of activities which its 
discharge involves. From time to time the newspaper must 
take its courage in both hands, speak out plainly, and perhaps 
impugn big interests and individuals. It must be prepared to 
defend the interests of truth, and be ready to spend time and 
money lavishly resisting the attacks of those who seek to close 
its mouth by threatening actions or issuing writs. 

A Publicity "Stunt" 

An issue of a totally different character was 
raised by the libel action brought by Mr. F. A. 
Mitchell Hedges, explorer, lecturer, author, and 
journalist, against the Daily Express, in 1928. 
Mr. Hedges said that on the night of I4th 
January, 1927, while he was travelling from 
London to Bournemouth, his car was "held 
up" on the Portsmouth road near Ripley, 
Surrey, the driver being bound and he and Mr. 
Edgell, his companion, being attacked and 
roughly handled. Later he found that the affair 
was a practical joke. The Daily Express, how- 
ever, in articles published on 2ist and 22nd 
January, 1927, said that the truth about the 
"battle on the Ripley road" was that it was 



174 SUB-EDITING 

planned as a publicity enterprise for the identi- 
fying device known as the Monomark which 
was on an attache case carried by Mr. Hedges 
and stolen by the "bandits," and that Mr. 
Hedges was a party to it. The defendants, 
with regard to the first of the two alleged libels, 
pleaded that the words complained of were true 
in substance and in fact. As for the second 
alleged libel, they said that the words com- 
plained of were not defamatory. 

In summing up the Lord Chief Justice said 

It was common ground that some persons, -towards the end 
of 1926, put their heads together to get a cheap advertisement 
for Monomarks. The scheme obviously was that a person 
whose name would attract some attention should appear to be 
waylaid on the public highway, and that it should be made, to 
appear that there had been taken from him a bag containing 
things which were very valuable ; and that afterwards, when 
the newspapers had given sufficient and satisfactory publicity 
to those matters and everybody was agog to know what had 
become of those valuable things, the bag should be produced 
and produced because it bore the plaintiff's Monomark. Such 
a prank with an advertising purpose was no infraction of the 
criminal law. There were two versions of the attack. One was 
that it was made on the plaintiff because he had reflected on a 
certain lack of pluck, enterprise, and adventure in the' youth 
of this country, and the youth of this country were determined 
to teach the plaintiff a lesson. That version held the field for 
some time, but they now knew perfectly well that it was not 
the true version. The true version was that it was a publicity 
"stunt " to get a cheap advertisement for Monomarks. 

The special jury, without leaving the box, 
found for the defendants. 

An Election Case 

In the excitement of an election, when 
political and personal issues often take a violent 
turn, newspapers have to steer a careful course, 
both in view of the law of libel and of special 



LEGAL PITFALLS 175 

election law. But here again newspapers have 
rights, and as an illustration I quote the case 
brought in 1927 by the late Mr. John Wheatley, 
M.P., against Mr. Alexander B. Anderson, 
printer and publisher of the Eastern Argus, 
Glasgow, and Mr. J. M. Reid Miller, of Glasgow, 
claiming against each 3,000 as damages for 
alleged slander contained in a letter written by 
Mr. Miller and published in the Eastern Argus. 
The case was heard in the Court of Session, 
Edinburgh. 

The issues which the jury were asked to decide 
were first, whether the letter was in whole or in 
part of and concerning the plaintiff and falsely 
and calumniously represented that the plaintiff 
was a man of dishonourable, crooked, and mean 
character to the loss, injury, and damage of the 
plaintiff; secondly, whether the said letter was 
in whole or in part of and concerning the plain- 
tiff and falsely and calumniously represented 
that the plaintiff had no regard for the sanctity 
of an oath to the loss, injury, and damage of the 
plaintiff. 

In his summing up Lord Murray said 

It was plain that they were concerned with a political dispute 
in which there had been engendered a good deal of heat on both 
sides. It was said that before, during, and after the election 
certain rumours were current in regard to matters which 
affected Mr. Wheatley, and the latter issued a challenge. They 
would probably agree that the challenge itself was couched in 
fairly vigorous terms. It was directed to Mr. Wheatley's 
opponents, including his chief opponent, Mr. Miller. It was 
couched in strong terms and referred to "traducers," "shame- 
ful methods/' and "a campaign of slander and lies." They 
must read the reply in the light of tjie challenge. People who 
invited by public challenge inquiry or reply in regard to public 
'matters must not be too thin-skinned. The reply was addressed 
to the editor of Mr. Wheatley's paper, but was not inserted, 



176 SUB-EDITING 

as Mr. Wheatley considered that it went beyond the limits of 
fair comment in respect that it contained a personal libel upon 
himself. Mr. Miller then arranged to have the reply printed in 
the Argus. The reply also indulged in hard hitting. Reading 
the challenge and the reply together, was the reply defamatory ? 
If it were in their opinion defamatory and libellous of the 
plaintiff, was it protected either as being fair comment or fair 
retort ? The third question "was whether, if the statement were 
defamatory and in that sense unfair, the plaintiff had in con- 
sequence of these statements sustained injury and damage, 
and, if so, to what extent. 

The rule of Scots law in a civil case is that a 
verdict cannot be given before the expiry of 
three hours if the jury is not unanimous, but by 
consent of the 1 parties it was agreed after the 
jury had been out for two and a quarter hours to 
take a majority verdict. The verdict of the jury 
was as follows: They found by a majority of 
nine to three in favour of both defendants on 
the first issue and unanimously in favour of both 
defendants on the second issue. Judgment was 
entered for the defendants. 

Contempt of Court: Cases Cited 

With the growth of sensational journalism, 
and the increasing fondness of popular papers 
for the life stories of criminals, cases of contempt 
of court have multiplied rapidly in recent times. 
The Courts are taking a graver view of these 
offences, and there is talk at the present time of 
imprisonment instead of fines as the punish- 
ment. Sub-editors will have noted the facts of 
the cases which have been brought into Court ; 
for the guidance of those who hope to join the 
sub-editorial ranks, in due course, I will put 
some of the chief points on record. I will omit 
names, as my purpose is to bring out principles. 



LEGAL PITFALLS 177 

Those who want to delve further can study the 
official law reports. 

Not long after the War a member of an Irish 
league, said to be a branch of the Sinn Fein 
organization, was charged with being in posses- 
sion of rifles at Brixton without a permit. A 
London paper published stories of a "huge 
Irish plot" and incorporated references to the 
charge mentioned. The Lord Chief Justice said 
the gravamen of the whole thing seemed to be 
that it was an invention of sensational matters. 
There was no doubt that certain statements 
made by the newspaper were not only inaccur- 
ate, but were invented. The reports were pub- 
lished while the man was before the magistrate, 
and the course of justice might have been 
prejudiced in the trial. The editor was fined 
500 and the company 500, the costs being 
divided between the two. It was pointed out 
that the editor, who accepted the responsibility, 
suffered for the sins of the correspondent who 
invented the story. 

"Criminal Investigation" 

The -notorious Crumbles murder gave rise to 
three cases of contempt which threw a flood of 
light on the legal and judicial view of news- 
paper limitations. Fines of 300 were imposed 
in two cases, and of 1,000 in the other. Here 
are some extracts from speeches and judgment 

The Attorney-General said that on the very day when the 
rules were granted there appeared in the ... a report of the 
proceedings headed "The Bungalow Mystery: Contempt of 
Court Alleged," and on page 5 of the same paper there was a 
full page headed "The Tragedy of Mrs. Patrick Mahon. Full 

13 (G.3X2I) 



178 SUB-EDITING . 

Story of Her Marriage Romance, by a Personal Friend," to- 
gether with photographs of Mrs. Mahon, Patrick Mahon, and 
the dead girl, Miss Kaye. There appeared a long account of 
the married life of Mahon and his wife, but it was the publica- 
tion rather than the actual words to which he (counsel) desired 
to direct attention. 

The Lord Chief Justice. What do you say is calculated to 
prejudice a fair trial ? 

The Attorney-General said that there was a fundamental 
principle of justice which was affected by all publications of any 
relevant matter during the course either of a trial or during the 
period in which the accused was under, remand or arrest. It was 
impossible for any person to know to wha't extent the life story 
of an accused man, either in relation to his wife or in relation tfb 
any other person, might be even vitally relevant to the trial 
when it came on. It was not for a newspaper to make inquiries 
and publish matter of a sensational nature, and it was con- 
tempt of Court for any newspaper to make such inquiries with 
a view to publication. 

Later, the Attorney-General said his con- 
tention was that it was contempt for any news- 
paper, when a man was under arrest, to make 
inquiries with the object of publishing facts 
which might be relevant to his trial. 

The Lord Chief Justice, in his judgment, 
- said 

It was apparent to the Court that the matters complained of 
were of such a kind as to be likely to interfere with the due 
administration of the criminal law. It was clear that cases of 
a similar kind to the present cases had recurred from time to 
time and had increased in number during recent years. One 
could not close one's eyes to what was done by the Press, and 
there seemed to be only too much ground for thinking that 
what was here complained of had come to be prevalent. 

It was clear that some of these newspapers had entered 
deliberately and systematically on a course which was de- 
scribed by some of them as "criminal investigation." It was 
urged on behalf of one respondent on the previous day that it 
was part of 'the duty of a newspaper when a criminal case was 
pending to. elucidate the facts. If he understood that sugges- 
tion when clearly expressed it came to something like this: 
that while the police of the Criminal Investigation Department 
were to pursue their investigations in silence and with all 
reticence and reserve, being careful to say nothing to prejudice 
the trial of the case, whether from the point of view of the 



LEGAL PITFALLS 179 

prosecution or the point of view of the defence, it had come 
to be somehow for some reason the duty of newspapers to 
employ an independent staff of amateur detectives, who would 
bring to an ignorance of the law of evidence a complete dis- 
regard of the interests whether of the prosecution or the 
defence. They were to conduct their investigation unfettered, 
to publish to the whole world from time to time the result of 
these investigations, whether they conceived them to be 
successful or unsuccessful results, and by so doing performing 
what was represented as a duty, and, one could not help 
thinking, to cater for the public appetite for sensational matter. 

It was not possible for that Court, nor had it any inclination, 
to suggest to the responsible editors of those newspapers what 
were the lines on which they ought to proceed. 'Any such task 
as that was entirely beyond the province of that or any other 
tribunal. Those who had to j udge by the results could see what 
a perilous enterprise this kind of publication was. It was not 
possible even for the most ingenious mind to anticipate with 
certainty what were to be the real issues, to say nothing of the 
more difficult question what was* to be the relative importance 
of .different issues in a trial which was about to take place. It 
might be that a date, a place, or a letter, or some other one 
thing which, considered in itself, looked trivial, might prove in 
the end to be a matter of paramount importance. It was im- 
possible to speculate what was important. 

His Lordship added that nobody who knew anything of 
the organization and management of a newspaper office could 
be ignorant of the fact that the work of newspapers was very, 
often done in circumstances of great hurry by many different 
minds not always fully aware of what others might be doing. 
The result was a composite thing, but there must be central 
responsibility. It was impossible to say that men occupying 
responsible positions should be excused because they them- 
selves were not personally aware of what was being done. The 
practice was nearly becoming prevalent, and it was quite 
obvious that there were those who thought that publications of 
this kind were not only legitimate, but even commendable. 
In the hope that that day's proceedings would show that in the 
opinion of that Court that view was entirely wrong, the Court 
had merely imposed a fine, but if the practice were repeated 
the Court would not again be disposed to adopt that merciful 
alternative. . 

A Photograph Case 

The first time that contempt proceedings were 
taken in respect of the publication of a photo- 
graph was in 1927. The cause of action against 



i8o SUB-EDITING 

two London papers was the publication of a 
photograph of Edgar William Smith, on the 
morning of the identification parade at which 
Smith, who had been committed for trial for 
the attempted murder of Police-constable 
Dainty, was put up for identification in con- 
nection with another charge which had been 
dismissed. 

The Lord Chief Justice said that the phrase "contempt of 
Court," was, in relation to the kind of subject with which they 
were now concerned, a little misleading. The mischief con- 
sisted not in some attitude or supposed attitude to the Court 
itself, but in the prejudice to an accused person. It was not 
something which affected the status of the Court itself, but 
something which might profoundly affect the rights of citizens. 
What was now complained of was that when a man named 
Smith had been arrested on a charge of attempted murder and 
brought before the magistrates, and before those proceedings 
had been completed, those two newspapers printed photo- 
graphs of the accused person. 

After quoting cases on the question of the 
use of photographs by the police, the Lord Chief 
Justice proceeded 

No one would excuse a police officer if, bringing together all 
the persons among whom witnesses of identification might be 
found, he said: "I have arrested a man and am going to put 
him up for identification by you," and then showed them a 
photograph of the man they were going to be asked to identify, 
because, for one reason among others, the witnesses would 
approach the important, and it might be crucial, task of 
identification with the knowledge that that particular man 
had been arrested. The fact that publishing a photograph was 
done in a money-making business did not excuse a newspaper 
doing that which would be reprehensible in a police officer. In 
his opinion, in the publication of photographs no less than in 
the publication of news matter, it was the duty of a newspaper 
to take care lest prejudice should be caused to a man about 
to stand his trial. An attitude of cynical indifference was 
manifestly wrong. 

By that he did not mean to lay down that a newspaper 
might never publish a photograph of a person who was a party 
to a civil or criminal proceeding ; no one would dream of laying 



LEGAL PITFALLS 181 

down so wide a proposition. But he did say that there was a 
duty to exercise care in the publication of the photograph of an 
accused person. If a newspaper published a photograph in 
such circumstances it ran a grave risk a risk which in one 
sense affected the accused person, and in another sense affected 
those responsible for the newspaper. 

In the present case the attempt to murder took place on 
7th January. Smith was arrested on 9th January and brought 
before the magistrates on loth January. It was not till I3th 
January that the identification parade took place, and it was 
while that identification parade was still pending and before it 
had taken place, that those photographs appeared. Was it, 
or was it not, reasonably clear that a question of identity 
might arise? He thought that it was clear. It certainly was 
not clear that identity would not arise, and what the news- 
papers did was to take the risk. 

It was quite true that when the identity parade took place 
only one person identified Smith ; and it was quite true that 
later, on 2yth January, when Smith was committed for trial 
his counsel said that the question of identity no longer arose ; 
but that could not have been foreseen by those who published 
those photographs on I3th January. They ought to have seen 
that the question of identity might arise, and he thought that 
they had published matter which was not intended, but was 
calculated, to prejudice the fair trial of Smith. 

In view of the fact that these were the first 
proceedings of the kind, the Court did not 
impose any penalty, but made absolute the rules 
and ordered the newspapers to pay the costs. 

Risky Enterprise 

A weekly paper, after a. man had been ar- 
rested and formally charged at the police station 
with the murder of a woman, published details 
about the career of. the accused, some of them 
prejudicial to him. The editor was fined 500. 
The Lord Chief Justice gave the following 
warning 

A newspaper was entitled to report that which took place 
in open court as long as the report was fair and accurate, but 
here nothing had taken place in court, and there was no ques- 
tion of reporting proceedings in open court. The newspaper 



i8a SUB-EDITING 

busied itself in an enterprising fashion to ascertain, or at any 
rate to collect together, material which might be thought to be 
of interest concerning that which had been done by the person 
who it was expected would be accused, It was quite incon- 
ceivable that a newspaper of the old-fashioned type would ever 
dream of entering upon an investigation of this character. 
Once a newspaper in such cases departed from a fair and 
accurate report of that which was actually said in open court 
it was taking a great risk. He said nothing of the risk to itself, 
but it was really imperilling the unfortunate man, guilty or 
innocent, who might be charged or might hereafter be charged. 
It was a form of enterprise for which there was no conceivable 
excuse. 

It could not be made too clear that when a newspaper went 
outside the task of faithfully reporting proceedings in a crim- 
inal case which had taken place in open court it incurred a 
grave risk, and in order to lend interest to its own issue it 
might be doing something which was grossly unfair to an 
individual. Here there were at least three statements of very 
grave prejudice about a man who was expected to be charged, 
who, it was said, might be charged on a day named he had 
not yet been charged at that time but who subsequently 
had been charged, and the statements referred to might or 
might not be true. If this kind of cynical indifference to the 
interests of an accused person continued to be displayed the 
case would not be met by the payment of a fine. 

Truth No Excuse 

An editor was fined 1,000 for the publication 
of references to the story of a man the day after 
his arrest on charges of theft and uttering a 
forged cheque. It was pleaded in mitigation 
that an autobiography had just been published 
and had been largely reviewed, and that the 
.matters complained of should be regarded in 
association with that book. 

The Lord Chief Justice, giving the judgment 
of the Court, said 

The editor had sworn that he had been assured that the 
matter complained of came from a reliable source and was 
published in the belief that the facts were correctly stated, and 
reference was also made to the existence of an autobiography. 
The present proceedings, however, were not for damages for 



LEGAL PITFALLS 183 

libel. It was a question whether a contempt of Court had been 
committed. It was clear that after the arrest of the unfortun- 
ate man and before his trial statements, very manifestly to his 
detriment, were printed about him which certainly could not 
have been given in evidence at his trial unless he gave them in 
evidence himself. If a man of bad character were arrested and 
were going to be tried, the fact that he was of bad character 
afforded no excuse for the publication of that fact or of any 
facts to his detriment. Indeed, it might be said, without 
undue refinement, that if a man had a bad character even 
greater care should be taken not to prejudice the case against 
him. In the present case a newspaper with a notoriously 
enormous circulation published the paragraph complained of, 
which showed in the most unmistakable way that the wretched 
man had been previously convicted. A man might be very 
bad, but he was entitled to a fair trial and he was not to be 
prejudiced by his previous record, whatever it might be, unless 
it came out in the course of the proceedings. 

" We think that it is of the utmost importance that it should 
be known that the fact, if fact it be, that statements to the 
detriment of an accused person are true affords not the slightest 
palliation or excuse for the publication of those statements 
before and with reference to the pending trial of that person for 
an offence." 



"Scandalizing a 

The question of "scandalizing a judge" was 
involved in a contempt case arising from the 
publication of an article commenting on the 
decision of the Court of Appeal in the case of 
"Rex v. Minister of Labour/' relating to the 
proposed institution of a Trade Board for "the 
catering trade." It contained the sentence: 
"Lord Justice Slesser, who can hardly be alto- 
gether unbiased about legislation of this type, 
maintained that really it was a very nice pro- 
visional order or as good a one as can be expected 
in this vale of tears." In his judgment, the 
Lord Chief Justice said 

" Scandalizing a judge " was contempt of Court where matter 
was published of a judge as such tending to bring him into 



184 SUB-EDITING 

contempt or to lower his authority, but the same phrase " con- 
tempt of Court" was applied where that which was done was 
calculated to obstruct or interfere with the due course of 
justice, and the second category was undoubtedly more serious 
than the first. If newspapers published matter scandalizing a 
judge, that was undoubtedly contempt, but it was far more 
serious to publish matter tending to prejudice a criminal trial. 

A" Printer's Error" 

Where it is made clear to the Court that 
offences charged against newspapers are the 
result of accident or carelessness, and not of 
deliberate intention, the Bench is always in- 
clined to reduce penalties. One or two recent 
instances illustrate this. A London evening 
paper made a defendant plead guilty at Bow 
Street Police Court to a charge of forgery, 
whereas at that time the man had not been 
called on to plead. Counsel for the paper ex- 
plained that the word "not" was omitted by 
the compositor. The original copy was pro- 
duced. As the reporter wrote it it read: " 

again appeared at Bow-street." The sub-editor 
substituted the words "pleaded not guilty" for 
the words "again appeared," and struck out the 
sentence "He pleaded not guilty" a little later 
in the MS. The compositor's proof with the 
reader's corrections was also produced, and 
showed that the words "pleaded guilty" ap- 
peared for "pleaded not guilty," and that the 
reader did not correct the error. Counsel on the 
other side pointed out that as the charges made 
against were charges in respect of an in- 
dictable offence, the proceedings were in the 

nature of a preliminary investigation, and 

had not hitherto been called on to plead. To 



LEGAL PITFALLS 185 

say that he "pleaded not guilty" was as in- 
accurate as to say that he "pleaded guilty." 
The Lord^ Chief Justice said the Court did not 
suppose for a moment that there was any 
intention to prejudice the trial, but there was 
gross carelessness. Allowances must be made 
for the haste with which newspapers were pre- 
pared, but taking the most lenient course open 
to them they imposed a fine of 100 and 
costs. 

Counsel was, of course, technically right in 
saying that there could be no plea of "Guilty" 
or "Not Guilty" at a police court in an indict- 
able case; but it was rather belabouring the 
case against the newspaper, since in fact at the 
end of a preliminary hearing before a magistrate 
the accused when invited, before being com- 
mitted for trial, to make a statement intimates, 
himself or through his advocate, that he will at 
the trial plead "Guilty" or "Not Guilty" as 
the case may be. The intention of the sub-editor 
unfortunately frustrated by the compositor's 
omission of the "not" was to bring out the 
fact that the accused denied the charge, and the 
publishing of such a denial could be no prejudice 
to him. 

A Contents Bill Slip 

An admitted slip brought a London paper into 
Court in the Rouse case. At the time Rouse 
stood committed for trial at the Northampton 
Assizes on a charge of murdering an unknown 
man in a motor-car at Hardingstone, and he com- 
plained that a poster issued by the newspaper 



186 SUB-EDITING 

containing the words "Another Blazing Car 
Murder" was calculated to prejudice his trial 
by suggesting that he was guilty of murder, 
whereas his defence throughout was that the 
man had met his death by accident through the 
car catching alight without any voluntary act 
on the part of any one. The poster in fact 
related to another case in the north of England 
in which it was alleged that a young woman 
was murdered in a blazing car. In an affidavit 
the editor declared that it did not occur to any 
one concerned that there was anything in the 
poster which could infringe the rule against 
prejudging a legal issue which was sub judice, 
but he and his staff now realized that it could be 
so interpreted. It was a slip, he said, which 
could only too easily be made in the exigencies 
of night publication. The Court decided that 
this was not a case for a penalty. 

A provincial evening paper came successfully 
out of a case of alleged contempt in respect of 
police-court proceedings. A man was charged 
before the local magistrates and the complaint 
was that in the newspaper report of the police- 
court proceedings the following words appeared : 
"The case for the prosecution was borne out 
by the evidence/' and "The Bench decided that 
the case was proved, and committed the defen- 
dant for trial at the next Quarter Sessions." 
Those words, it was contended, tended to create 
the impression that if the accused had not 
elected to go before a jury he would have been 
convicted by the magistrates, as the case had 
been proved. That was quite inaccurate. 



LEGAL PITFALLS 187 

The Lord Chief Justice, in stating that the rule would not 
be granted, said that the man in the street was an intelligent 
and sensible person. The newspaper had made slips by saying 
that the case for the prosecution had been "borne out" by 
evidence, instead of stating that it had been "supported/' and 
that the bench held that there was a prima facie case for trial 
by a jury. Such mistakes, however, did not appear to be 
calculated to prejudice the trial of the accused, especially as any 
damage that might have been done would be dispelled by the 
publicity that the application would receive. 

Pending Appeal 

When an accused person has been convicted 
of an offence -at the Assizes, and has lodged an 
appeal, to what extent is a newspaper entitled 
to deal with his case by way of comment or 
story? Is the strict rule of silence that covers 
the period between arrest and trial applicable 
to the period between conviction and the 
decision of the Court of Criminal Appeal? 
These questions have caused some perplexity 
to editors, but if Lord Darling's speech in the 
House of Lords in April, 1931, is to be accepted as 
decisive, the only safe rule is silence during the 
pendency of an appeal. In that speech he 
dealt with the publication of "alleged con- 
fessions" by Rouse, in the blazing car murder 
case, after sentence of death but before the 
dismissal of the convict's appeal. 

On the whole, said Lord Darling, the freedom of the Press 
was something which acted for the general good of society; 
yet freedom might be abused, and in the case to which he was 
calling attention he thought it was abused. The best form of 
liberty was what had been well called the liberty of wise 
restraint, and those newspapers showed the greatest wisdom 
which, in dealing with matters such as cases pending before 
the Courts, exercised the greatest amount of restraint. Certain 
papers entirely forgot their duty in that respect, and they not 
only published a great deal which it was inexpedient to pub- 
lish while the case was before the magistrates and at the Assizes, 



i88 SUB-EDITING 

after conviction, and after appeal had been lodged by the 
convicted man, but they also published their views of what 
should be considered by the judges in coming to a conclusion 
as to allowing or dismissing the appeal . 

[That the question is not clear of doubt was 
shown by the remarks of the Lord Chief Justice 
after he had given judgment against Rouse in 
the appeal. He said there had been, pending 
the appeal to the Court, a great deal of im- 
proper comment in certain newspapers and in 
letters to the members of the Court, including 
one from a person describing himself as a mem- 
ber of Parliament. They would have to consider 
whether proceedings of that kind pending an 
appeal did not constitute a contempt of Court.] 

Lord Darling read the following letter which 
he had received from Lord Rothermere which 
he referred to as valuable confirmation of the 
view that there was nothing to the detriment 
of reputable newspapers in omitting comments 
of the nature of those he complained of in the 
Rouse case 

I am very interested in the subject of the debate that you are 
initiating to-day, and I wish that my business engagements 
permitted me to attend. I gather you are to raise, among 
other questions, the increasing tendency of certain newspapers 
to publish, particularly in respect of murder cases, the life 
story of the convicted person, notwithstanding that an appeal 
to the Court of Criminal Appeal may be pending. Speaking for 
myself and I am sure my personal view will be shared by the 
proprietors of all reputable newspapers I would welcome an 
authoritative ruling that matters to the detriment of the 
convicted person should not be published until the time for 
lodging an appeal had lapsed, or, if an appeal was lodged, then 
not until the appeal had been heard. 

The Lord Chancellor, replying to Lord Dar- 
ling, said 

No one desired to limit the legitimate powers of the Press, 
and he doubted if it were possible to say that newspapers 



LEGAL PITFALLS 189 

could make no comment at all until the time for appealing had 
expired. But that was a consummation devoutly to be 
wished, and he welcomed the views of Lord Rothermerc, 
which Lord Darling had read. The position might be somewhat 
different when an appeal was entered, but whatever and when- 
ever comment was made it must be reasonable and temperate 
in its terms and not such as to prejudice the accused's chances 
of appeal. It was due to the Press to say that in the majority of 
cases their powers were well and wisely used. Publicity might 
lead to the prevention of crime as well as its detection. Due 
allowance was always made by the Court for an unintentional, 
as distinguished from a deliberate offence. He would gladly 
give an assurance that, in the event of such articles as had been 
referred to appearing on a future occasion, they would be 
brought before the Court, so that the Court might have an 
opportunity of considering whether a contempt had or had not 
been committed. In his opinion a great evil at the present 
time was the marketing of sensational stories in connection 
with current criminal cases. It was not in the interests of 
justice nor of public morality that the sordid details of a 
criminal career should be spread abroad. Nowadays papers 
were read by young and old alike, and he ventured to appeal 
to the editors and proprietors of our great papers and ask them 
whether it was not desirable to discontinue the publication of 
such articles. 

Commenting on Lord Hewart's remarks given 
on page 188, the News Chronicle wrote 

We are very glad that this matter has been raised. The 
present position of newspapers with regard to comment made 
after the verdict has been given and while the appeal is still 
pending is extraordinarily obscure and uncertain. This un- 
certainty makes the position of reputable newspapers in such 
cases (as Lord Hewart, an old journalist himself, will readily 
recognize) one of considerable difficulty and delicacy. It 
would be a relief to the whole Press to have the question 
settled once and for all. A definite ruling is badly needed. 

The issue was raised again very clearly 
in the Kylsant case. A jury at the Old Bailey 
found Lord Kylsant, chairman of the Royal 
Mail Steam Packet Company, guilty of having 
published a deceptive prospectus, and Mr. 
Justice Wright sentenced him to 12 months' 
imprisonment in the second division. Notice 



igo SUB-EDITING 

of appeal was given and the newspapers were 
faced with the problem of how far they could 
comment on a case of great public interest. 
In its leading article on the subject the Daily 
Telegraph said: "The intimation that this mat- 
ter is to be the subject of an appeal precludes 
comment upon that aspect of a highly remark- 
able trial." Questions raised on oth.er charges 
against Lord Kylsant and the auditor of the 
Company, on which both were acquitted, were, 
however, the proper subject of comment. They 
were of much importance to the business world, 
and, so far as this case was concerned, had been 
finally disposed of. 

In dealing with reports of public inquiries 
where accusations are made against people, be 
careful to ascertain whether the proceedings 
come within privilege. A fair and accurate 
report may be given of a public inquiry by a 
Government official, say, for instance, by the 
Chief Registrar of Friendly Societies, into the 
affairs of a building society. Such an inquiry 
has a judicial character. If charges are levelled, 
be careful to give any reply that is made, even 
if it comes days after the allegation was uttered. 

Copyright 

The elements of the law of copyright as 
applicable to newspaper practice should be 
understood by the sub-editor. Fortunately it 
is not so complicated as the law of libel. Occa- 
sionally questions arise as to the use of special 
articles from other newspapers or periodicals, 
or extracts from books. " Lifting " has its limits, 



LEGAL PITFALLS 191 

but the Copyright Act of 1911 declares that 
" any fair dealing with any work for the purpose 
of criticism, review, or newspaper summary" 
is not an infringement of an author's copyright. 
Wholesale appropriation of original literary 
work from other sources, without express per- 
mission, is not. allowable. For instance, for a 
local paper hard-up- for matter, to print bodily 
a leading article with an introductory sentence : 

''What does the mean by this?" (as I am 

credibly informed has happened before now) 
would probably be held to be an infringement 
of copyright. 

The lawyers tell us that there is no copyright 
in news, i.e. the actual event or information, 
but only in the form in which it is presented. 
The facts may be taken if told in a different 
literary form. Where skill and labour have been 
exercised in preparing a story the distinctive 
product has the protection of copyright, but 
the bare facts may be appropriated and pre- 
sented in another way, if a newspaper on 
occasion desires to do so. In the absence of 
an agreement between the parties, however, a 
paper must not systematically copy articles or 
reports from another paper, in obtaining which 
money and organizing skill have been expended. 
Generally newspapers, to-day, which secure at 
considerable cost special features, such as the 
narratives of explorers, print a specific reserva- 
tion of world copyright which has an inter- 
national validity. 

A case of particular interest to sub-editors 
was decided at the Coleraine Quarter Sessions , 



192 SUB-EDITING 

in 1931. A free-lance journalist claimed dam- 
ages from a newspaper for alleged infringement 
of copyright. His case was that he had supplied 
news items to various newspapers, and that 
these were lifted and published without pay- 
ment to the plaintiff and without his author- 
ity in the defendants' paper. The plaintiff had 
admitted that all matter supplied by him to 
other newspapers had been sub-edited, and 
defendants' counsel submitted that once that 
was done the news appeared in a different form 
from that supplied by the plaintiff, and his copy- 
right was gone. The plaintiff's counsel argued 
that the originality of the work was not lost by 
the mere fact that it was sub-edited. 

The judge said he was satisfied that the plaintiff was not 
entitled to succeed for two reasons. Mr. Justice North had held 
that there was no copyright in news, but that there was in the 
particular form of language in which it was conveyed. The 
plaintiff in this case sent news to various papers, and the form 
of language in which the news was conveyed was that of the 
sub-editor who exercised his right as to the form in which it 
was to appear. The sub-editor, therefore, made himself 
responsible for it. He was satisfied it was not the original 
literary work produced by the plaintiff, and that he had no 
copyright in what had been published in the papers. He 
dismissed the case. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT 

IN the evolution of journalism, America, the 
continent of bright ideas, has played a decisive 
role. The achievements of the "big boys" of 
the Western World may be broadly indicated 
as 

1 . Enterprise in the organization of news col- 
lection, and skill and audacity in getting the 
news. 

2. Elaboration of new styles of make-up and 
display. 

3. Features, such as the column, the comic 
strip, the week-end budget, fiction, etc. 

4. Sensational treatment of crime stories 
unhampered by the strict law of libel and 
contempt that applies in Great Britain. 

5. Campaigns of exposure of municipal and 
commercial scandals. 

6. A remarkably full service in the chief 
papers of foreign news. 

There is no doubt that the sense of freedom 
in handling " dangerous " news, born of the legal 
laxity, referred to, has given a certain character 
and force to American journalism that are missing 
in this country. Even in the "serious" news- 
papers the level of sensationalism is higher than 
here, but this does not involve anything offen- 
sive to decency in the great bulk of the American 
Press. The motto of the New York Times "All 

14 (G.2I2I) IQ3 



i 9 4 SUB-EDITING 

the news that's fit to print" may be taken as 
the keynote in matters of sex. In the treat- 
ment of general news the methods known as 
"yellow" are much more questionable. They 
have been roundly and fiercely denounced by 
American authors. The term sprang from the 
"yellow kid/ 1 the name given to popular- comic 
characters that figured in the sensational 
Pulitzer-Hearst newspaper duel in New York 
in the 'nineties. Nowadays the term is generally, 
and justly, used as one of opprobrium. While 
it is possible here to classify newspapers as 
either serious or sensational, "class" or "popu- 
lar," the position in America is quite different. 
This point is dealt with by Mr. J. A. Spender 
in his book on "The America of To-day," where 
he says 

Like so much else in America, the American newspapei 
presents contrasts and combinations which to the English 
eye are in mutual conflict. A great newspaper may be both 
serious and sensational in the same number, serious in one part 
and sensational in another. On a certain day in January in 
1927 the same newspaper contained a whole page of the Malines 
conversations on the reunion of the Roman and Anglican 
churches cabled verbatim from London, and another whole 
page profusely illustrated about the murderess then awaiting 
execution. An English journalist accustomed to think it a 
leading principle in the editing of newspapers that they should 
aim steadily at one kind of reader, asks in despair what kind of 
American reader can possibly desire both these items of -news, 
or how any reader who desired the one could fail to be offended 
or bored by the other. The American editor apparently does 
not ask this question. He goes out after all sorts of readers at 
the same time and. assumes, or hopes, that, if a reader dislikes 
or is bored by one part of the paper, he will be amused or 
interested by another part. 

Crime Stories 

A reflection prompted by this diversity is 
that the sub-editors, or "copy-readers" as they 



THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT 195 

are called in America, must be men of wonderful 
versatility to be able to handle with equal readi- 
ness and skill a page about the Malines con- 
versations and a page about the Snyder murder 
sensation; or perhaps it is a case of each man 
to his special work, as is the custom here in 
offices where discrimination is exercised in the 
allocation of jobs. The preparation of crime 
stories in America, especially in the "tabloids," 
is distinctive and characteristic. The whole 
procedure is alien to the British idea of the 
dignity and decorum of justice. A trial of 
national interest in America is "staged," in the 
literal sense. Hundreds of wires are installed 
in or about the Court ; the place is adapted for 
the accommodation of an army of newspaper 
men, and the flashlight apparatus may be rigged 
up on the judicial bench itself. At the famous 
Hall-Mills trial in New Jersey described as 
one of journalism's most celebrated murder 
mystery stories there were over 200 reporters 
in attendance, one New York "tabloid" having 
sixteen men there. In the newspaper office the 
story dominated everything. Costly cablegrams 
from other parts of the world were thrown away 
to make space for the absorbing crime story. 
At the end of 24 days 12,000,000 words had 
been telegraphed from the Court to the news- 
papers. 

In the English popular papers criminal trials 
of great interest are fully exploited, and the 
sub-editors' ingenuity in headlines is taxed 
to find fresh ideas for the continuations, 
sometimes over several pages, in banners and 



196 SUB-EDITING 

column heads and cross-heads; but when these 
things are done on the vast scale fashionable in 
America the task is still more formidable to 
secure variety and the element of sustained 
sensationalism. 

Mr. G. Binney Dibblee, writing from close 
personal knowledge of the American Press, 
examines in detail in his book, "The News- 
paper/' the organization of what he calls "the 
most expert news-gathering machine in the 
world an American daily paper with, perhaps, 
an evening paper attached to it." The news 
"watchers/' or "general workers " send in their 
work in fragments, often by telephone, and this 
matter passes into the hands of the "rewriters," 
or "telephone rewriters/' who transform it into 
"story" form, which then goes to the copy 
readers. These men correspond partially to the 
English sub-editors, he says, but do not enjoy 
so much positive responsibility. 

The functions of a copy-reader are unpleasantly negative. 
The real power of judging the news and criticizing it lies above 
with the city editor and the managing editor, officials only 
dimly shadowed in England. The copy-reader's duty is to 
suppress hopelessly incompetent stuff, to revise the results of 
carelessness, to add headlines and to correct all blunders. In 
addition he is the policeman of the office, cutting out the list 
of forbidden words, correcting spelling, and removing con- 
tradictions and obvious absurdities. There are no thanks 
coming to him either from above or below, and endless possi- 
bilities of reproof and disaster. 

One American newspaper offers bonuses to 
the writer of the best story and to the "copy 
desk" for the best headline of the week. The 
latter is awarded by the vote of the room, the 
chief having a casting vote in case of a tie. 






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THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT 197 

Big Papers: Small Circulations 

The freshness and originality of American 
journalism are the natural product of the in- 
tense vitality and restless energy of the nation. 
Crime work is only one phase and it would be 
false emphasis to pay too much regard to it. 
In handling the great stories of the world, of 
all kinds, the -American Press is amazingly com- 
petent, and the huge issues printed give a scope 
denied to the smaller papers of this country. 
Circulations in America are limited to " metro- 
politan " areas; distances are too vast for trans- 
port to distribute national circulations, as is 
done in Great Britain, where papers are smaller 
and carriage to the farthest points is feasible. 
There is nothing here comparable with the 
mammoth issues of, for instance, the New York 
Times, which often has from 50 to 60 pages on 
an ordinary day, and perhaps 150 in its Sunday 
budget of sections. The maximum size of The 
Times is 32 pages, except when special supple- 
ments are issued; and a few other papers here 
occasionally equal it ; but these are the nearest 
approach to the American records. 

Comparing the New York Times with The 
Times , the first point to be noticed is that it has 
an eight-column page against a seven, although 
the type width of the page is 100 pica ems in 
each case. The New York Times' columns are 
12 ems wide, and The Times' 14 ems. In a paper 
that loves balance in its make-up, an eight- 
column page is ideal. Looking at Plate XXIV 
it will be seen how this works. The two main 



198 SUB-EDITING 

stories are double columns on the t wo" wings, " 
beneath which are two cut-offs. Columns three 
and six have headings each of six "decks" and 
matched exactly in length and number of lines. 
The centre columns, four and five, are headed 
by a cut-off which forms a symmetrical feature, 
and beneath it again are two headings which 
are exactly balanced in depth and in detail. 
The principle of balance and symmetry is carried 
throughout the page, down to the two cut-offs 
at the bottoms of columns two and three, and 
columns six and seven, the type of the headlines 
again matching. A page of this character is 
the result of much careful planning and sub- 
editorial ability in preparation. 

The "Narrative M Heading 

One of the distinctive features of the American 
method is what I may call the "narrative" 
heading, which covers not only the main theme, 
but is also in reality a summary of the whole 
story, the writing of which demands a close 
grip of all essential points. A hasty reader can 
get the whole pith and marrow in the heading, 
without reading the text. The condensed types 
employed enable the writers to cram a good 
deal in, and the freedom permitted in the use 
of verbs and tenses, of nouns as adjectives, and 
of forms of phrasing that are forbidden in many 
British offices, gives infinite scope and variety. 
The New York Times is a real work of art in 
its sub-editing, its typography, and its make-up. 
Compared with many of its contemporaries it 
is conservative and dignified. The total effect 






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THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT 199 

of its pages, aided largely by trim black upper- and 
lower-case cross-heads, is one of extreme neatness. 
In the left "ear" of the page shown appears the 
famous motto, and in the right the day's weather. 

The Chicago Daily Tribune (Plate XXV) 
affords a big contrast in many ways. The effect 
is bolder and more sensational. The page size 
and the number of columns are the same as in 
the New York Times. In neither is to be found 
the black type in introductions so much in 
vogue in British pages, nor is the method of 
indentation for emphasis used to any extent. 
The Tribune carries two protuberant "ears" and 
beneath its title the unqualified claim, "The 
World's Greatest Newspaper." The great fea- 
ture of the page is, of course, the bold black 
banner "Spain a Republic; King Flees." The 
type used, a great sans, is undeniably effec- 
tive, although open to the criticism that it 
verges on the poster style of display. Some 
American papers appear to think that the title 
is of minor importance compared with the 
news, for it is often almost obscured by heavy 
type above, at the sides, and beneath it. 

The policy of the Chicago Daily Tribune is 
that of going "all out" on the chief story. The 
tops under the banner are set in a good readable 
sans, in character with the banner. The type 
and construction of the headings are quite differ- 
ent from those of the New York Times. The 
three principal headings are matched in size, 
with three top lines of sans caps, and secondary 
turning lines in the upper and lower case of a 
clear-faced type. There is much less detail in the 



200 SUB-EDITING 

headings and the limits of size and type involve 
drastic compression of story points. The News 
Summary column, written in the historic pres- 
ent, and carefully classified in subject divisions, 
is an excellent piece of work. The cartoon and 
the weather are features, and there is only 
one "continuation," as against seven "jumps" 
in the New York Times' page. The Tribune 
retains wide measure columns (16 ems) on its 
leader page, as does The Times (London), but 
four of the columns are narrow, giving a curious 
composite page. 

Chicago Outdone 

An interesting comparison is furnished between 
the Tribune page and Plate VIII. The Daily 
Express leaves the American paper far behind 
in the boldness and novelty of its display of the 
abdication story. On the other hand the New 
York Times of the same day (i5th April, 1931) 
contents itself with a much more subdued make- 
up. Its Spanish story was kept within the four 
right-hand columns of the front page (which is 
deemed in America to be the position of honour), 
the banner lines being 

KING ALFONSO QUITS, SPAIN A REPUBLIC: 
ALCALA ZAMORA IS FIRST PRESIDENT, 
NATION ORDERLY UNDER MARTIAL LAW 

Beneath the banner was a double-column picture 
of the King, and in this detail the display was 
an improvement on that of the Tribune. On 
this date the New York Times 9 issue extended 
to 56 pages. 



THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT 201 

By way of contrast let me give the headings 
in The Times (London) on King Alfonso 

(i5TH APRIL) 

FALL OF KING 
ALFONSO 

DEPARTURE FROM 
MADRID 

PROCLAMATION OF A 
REPUBLIC 

FULL STORY 



(i6xH APRIL) 

A MANIFESTO TO 
SPAIN 

KING ALFONSO'S 
POSITION 

NO RENUNCIATION 
OF RIGHTS 

ROYAL FAMILY'S 
JOURNEY 



202 SUB-EDITING 

I give the two headings because they illustrate 
exactness in recording news. The Madrid corre- 
spondent in his first message said that the 
question as to whether the King had abdicated 
was doubtful. Hence, the caution in the head- 
ing; whereas most other papers plumped for 
abdication. The reserve shown by The Times 
was justified next day, when Alfonso's mani- 
festo made it plain that he had not renounced 
any rights, but awaited the judgment of his 
country. The truth is good enough in a heading, 
and, after all, "fall of" is as effective as 
"abdication." 

Seventy Tears Ago 

Although the American people have abiding 
links with British ancestry, such as language 
and common law, their main achievement as 
we see it to-day is the fruit of independent 
growth. When the Pilgrim Fathers left these 
shores over three centuries ago there were no in- 
digenous newspapers in England only a few 
corantos from the Continent which had not 
attained any firm status. So the pioneers of the 
New World developed their Press entirely on 
their own lines, and a comparison of the various 
stages of newspaper growth reveals distinguish- 
ing marks of racial characteristics. This might 
well be the subject of research ; within the scope 
of this book I can only make this passing 
allusion. It may, however, be of interest to give 
one or two sample headings to indicate the 
line of development, for headings, as I remark 
elsewhere, are an index of character. Take 



THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT 203 

three specimens from periods of critical im- 
portance in the middle of the last century. They 
speak for themselves 

(New York Times, 17x11 AUGUST, 1858) 

THE OCEAN TELEGRAPH. 



VICTORY AT LAST! 



THE FIRST MESSAGE. 



ENGLAND GREETS AMERICA 

QUEEN VICTORIA 

TO 

PRESIDENT BUCHANAN. 

THE PRESIDENT'S REPLY. 
TRIUMPHANT COMPLETION 

OF THE 

GREAT WORK OF THE CENTURY. 

The Old World and the New United. 
GLORIA IN EXCELSIS. 



204 SUB-EDITING 

(New York Times, 4TH APRIL, 1865) 

G RAN T - 

RICHMOND 

AND 

VICTORY! 

The Union Army 

in the Rebel 

Capital 

Rout and Flight of the Great 
Rebel Army from Richmond. 

Jeff. Davis and His Grew 
Driven Out. 



Grant in Close Pursuit of Lee's 
Routed Forces. 

Richmond and Petersburgh in Full 
Possession of Our Forces. 

ENTHUSIASM IN THE REBEL CAPITAL. 

The Citizens Welcome Our Army with 
Demonstrations of Joy. 

RICHMOND FIRED BY THE ENEMY 

Our Troops Save the City from 
Destruction. 

THE EVACUATION OF PETERSBURGH. 



THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT 205 

(New York Times, I5TH APRIL, 1865) 

AWFUL EVENT. 

President Lincoln 

Shot by an 

Assassin* 

The Deed Done at Ford's 
Theatre Last Night. 

THEACTOFADESPERATE REBEL 

The President Still Alive at 
Last Accounts. 

No Hopes Entertained of His 
Recovery. 

Attempted Assassination of 
Secretary Seward. 

DETAILS OF THE DREADFUL TRAGEDY. 

These three headings were in single column. 
In vigour of language and adequacy of point 
they stand well against their modern counter- 
part. They naturally seem a little quaint, and 
the definite article is used much more liberally 
than would be permitted nowadays. 

To make our comparisons complete, now look 



206 SUB-EDITING 

at the .heading which the New York Times 
printed at the end of the Great War (nth Nov., 
1918). Here is the quadruple banner, full page 
width 

ARMISTICE SIGNED, END OF THE WAR! 
BERLIN SEIZED BY REVOLUTIONISTS; 
NEW CHANCELLOR BEGS FOR ORDER; 
OUSTED KAISER FLEES TO HOLLAND 

The main subsidiary heading, a double column 
at the right of the page, was 

WAR ENDS AT 6 O'CLOCK THIS MORNING 

The State Department in Washington 

Made the Announcement at 

2:45 o'Clock. 

ARMISTICE WAS SIGNED IN FRANCE AT MIDNIGHT 

Terms Include Withdrawal from Alsace-Lorraine 

Disarming and Demobilization of Army and 

Navy, and Occupation of Strategic 

Naval and Military Points. 

The whole page is devoted to the Armistice 
and related events, and there are four other 
headings and two boxes. It is clear from the 
earlier headlines printed above that the "nar- 
rative'' form is a tradition with the New York 
Times. 

Reference has already been made to the huge 



THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT 207 

Sunday issues favoured in America. They are 
so vast that the wonder is how any one can find 
time to read them probably no one does. The 
interests of readers are divided into sections, 
as shown in the following tables of two leading 
papers of the same date, 2nd August, 1931 

"NEW YORK HERALD-TRIBUNE" 

Section Subject Number of pages 

1. Late City Edition . . . . .20 

2 . Editorials : farm and gardening, foreign news 

politics, schools .... 12 

3. Sports ...... 10 

4. Science ...... 6 

5. Finance and business . 8 

6. Real estate 6 

7. Society, fashions, travel ... 16 

8. Drama, music, screen, art . . 6 

9. Gravure in two parts ... 16 
10. Comics in colour .... 8 
n. Books ...... 16 

12. Magazine ..... 24 

13. Classified advertisements, marine . 6 



Total pages 



i. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 
6. 

7- 

8. 

9. 

10. 



"NEW YORK TIMES' 

News ..... 
Second news .... 
Education, Letters to Editor 
Books ..... 
Magazine .... 

Rotogravure (i) 

(2) ... 

Screen, drama, music, travel 
Science, art .... 
Sports, shipping, mails 

Total pages 



26 

16 

8 

24 

24 

8 

8 

16 

12 
12 



154 



In each case the book and magazine sections 
are in folio size. 



208 SUB-EDITING 

Standardized Technique 

There is standardization of technique in both 
England and America. In England it may be 
traced to the development of "chain" papers, 
subject to centralized control, which imposes 
main ideas on all. In America there are, of 
course, huge groups, but the divergencies in 
local policies are more marked, and standardiza- 
tion is largely due to the great spread of schools 
of journalism, and the building up of a body of 
textbooks on all the departments of the journal- 
istic craft. Universities, colleges, and even high 
schools and academies all over the States teach 
journalism and the number of graduates yearly 
is great and growing. There are discussions and 
differences as to the practical value of the 
teaching, and the possibility of making journal- 
ists in schools (we are familiar with the same 
dispute in this country), but the fact remains 
that the students who pass through the courses 
find employment in considerable numbers on 
newspaper staffs. The teachers of journalism, 
scattered all over the States, are organized, 
and there is a constant interchange of ideas. 
This process tends inevitably to the standardiza- 
tion of instruction in technique according to 
the highest ascertained level of attainment 
The University of Missouri has the distinction 
of being the pioneer ; it had the first university 
school in the world offering a degree in journal- 
ism, established in 1908. Thirty years before 
that it was providing courses in journalism. 
Soon after Missouri started Mr. Pulitzer endowed 



THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT 209 

his sthool at Columbia University, New York. 
On varying scales courses appeared in many 
places to such an extent that in 1912 the 
American conference of Teachers of Journal- 
ism was organized, and bulletins are now regu- 
larly issued by associations of schools and 
departments and teachers. What was an ex- 
periment, when Dean Walter Williams began 
his courageous pioneer work at Missouri, has 
become an established and prosperous reality, 
and the process of development has been 
watched with interest by the whole world of 
journalism. London University trains students 
for its diploma for journalism, and other coun- 
tries have their teaching systems, but America 
led the way and has, of course, gone further. 
Some of its bigger schools actually produce 
their own newspapers a valuable means of 
practical training. 

The Journalism Quarterly, "devoted to in- 
vestigative studies in the field of journalism/' 
published by the Association of Schools and 
Departments of Journalism and the American 
Association of Teachers of Journalism (Iowa 
City, Iowa) , is proof of the keen and far-reaching 
outlook to which I have alluded. The current 
issue (Vol. VIII, No. 2), when this book first 
appeared, included: "The Comparative Size 
of the Journalism Field," by George Turn- 
bull, of the University of Oregon; "Contem- 
porary Regulations of the British Press," by 
Frederick S. Siebert; a bibliography of articles 
related to journalism, November, 1930, to 
February, 1931 ; book reviews and news notes. 

15 (G.2I2I) 



2io SUB-EDITING 

Mr. Turnbull's article is an interesting statistical 
study. The 1920 census of the United States 
showed 228,630 persons as engaged in the manu- 
facture of newspapers and periodicals. Included 
in this total were 108,249 "purely journalistic 
workers," equal to 102 per 100,000 of the 
population. This compared with 115 lawyers 
and 142 physicians and surgeons. As to the 
annual recruiting for journalism he says 

If it is reasonable to assume an average forty-three-year 
career for newspaper people, the 108,249 positions in the 
general journalistic field would absorb one forty-third of this 
number, or about 2,500 beginners, on the average, yearly. 
This, apparently, is about the maximum that should be turned 
out by the schools and departments of journalism if their 
graduates are to occupy the field as, in time, probably they 
will to the practical exclusion of those who began with no 
college journalism training. 

" Copy-reading " is one of the chief subjects 
in the American curricula. Columbia gives 
practical training in reading copy, writing head- 
lines, the exercise of news judgment, and the 
display of news with reference to make-up. It 
confers the degrees of B.Lit. and of Master of 
Science in Journalism. The requirements for 
the major degree include " a substantial article 
of not less than 15,000 words on a journalistic 
subject." Missouri issues, in its excellent series 
of bulletins, a deskbook which is a model 
of practical and detailed instruction in all 
branches of work. The influence of such a book 
must be in the direction of standardization. 
American teachers do not make extravagant 
claims. The courses, it is maintained, rub the 
raw edges off recruits and help materially to give 
them a favourable start in actual newspaper 



THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT 211 

work ; but that work, it is admitted, still has its 
hard practical lessons to teach. None the less 
the "laboratory work" of the University school 
is a real preparation. 

Copy-reading Syllabus 

Appended is a syllabus outline compiled 
mainly from courses in copy-reading offered at 
Missouri, Illinois, and Syracuse, which is stated 
to be "typical of those courses which limit 
'news editing* more nearly to the duties and 
responsibilities of the man known in British 
newspapers as the 'sub-editor.'" 

1. The Place of the Copy-reader in Newspaper Organization 

The progress of news from reporter to reader. 

2. Deskbooks and Style Sheets 

Sentence clarity and forcefulness in writing. 
Bad taste in news writing. 
Desirability of uniformity in usage. 

3. Exercise in Copy -reading 

Mistakes most commonly found in copy. 
Applied grammar. 

4. Headline Writing 

The mechanics of head writing. 
Getting ideas most effectively into type. 
Defective headlines ; headline faults. 
Varieties of headlines. 

5. Rewrites and Follow Stories 

"Trimming to space." 
Expanding a story. 
Writing effective leads. 

6. The Newspaper and the Law 

Protective wording against libel. 

7. Newspaper Ethics 

The copy-reader as a constructive force. 

8. Newspaper Make-up 

Sending sectional stories to press. 
Assembling long stories ; telegraph stories. 
Handling editions ; changes in news values. 
Front, editorial, sport, feature pages. 
Problems of display, illustration and typography. 

9. Editing Special Departmental Material, Magazines, and 

Small Publication Work. 



212 SUB-EDITING 

The Eagle Eye 

There is one experience that is common to 
editorial staffs both in America and England, 
and that is the constant scrutiny of the eagle 
eye of the wandering millionaire proprietor. 
Telegraph and telephone give proof of a con- 
stant watchfulness, if the proprietor, as is some- 
times the case, is a practical journalist. Mr. 
Winkler tells us that William Randolph Hearst 
even in his "experimental period," when he 
was making a success of the San. Francisco 
Examiner, almost daily sent pages of direction 
and advice to his sub-editors, all in his own 
handwriting, written late at night. The sub- 
editors are often in the line of fire of the 
proprietorial thunderbolt, because they are con- 
cerned with display and make-up, which are 
among the most potent weapons of the new 
journalism. The biographers of Lord North- 
cliife, Joseph Pulitzer, and James Gordon 
Bennett all tell the same story. 

One of the chief figures in the great journalistic 
duel of "Hearst v. Pulitzer/' Mr. Arthur Bris- 
bane, has propounded many interesting theories 
of journalism. It is said that he earned at least 
50,000 a year, which easily made him the 
highest paid journalist in the world. " In a busy 
nation/' he says, " the first necessity is to attract 
attention. The big store window wasting space 
and the big type apparently wasting space are 
necessary features of quick development. I am 
not sure it is good that regularity in make-up 
should compel big headlines on trivial pieces of 



THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT 213 

news. But I observe that Nature puts on the 
bodies of trivial men heads of about the average 
size. Nature, apparently being incapable of 
supplying the world with enough great men, 
observes uniformity in the headlines or head- 
pieces to atone for much inferiority. And the 
editor, for the sake of uniformity, is justified 
in imitating Nature and making up with big 
headlines for the lack of a sufficient supply of 
big stories/' 

How highly the importance of make-up is 
assessed is illustrated by a little story^of Mr. 
Hearst, who one night entered the composing 
room and looked over the first page. He said 
the story they were playing second was really 
more interesting than the first, and suggested a 
re-make. "I agree with you/ 1 said the make-up 
man, ''but I am afraid there is no time to 
reset." Hearst smiled, pushed the whole forme 
off the stone, making a pile of pied type, and 
asked "Now, is there time to reset?" He 
added: "There is always time to make a thing 
better." The hectic battle between Mr. Pulitzer 
and Mr. Hearst for supremacy in New York, 
which Mr. Seitz calls "the most extraordinary 
dollar-matching contest in the history of Amer- 
ican journalism," did more than anything else 
to incite the newspapers to those extravagances 
of typographical Bolshevism which have char- 
acterized the Press of the United States. 

Last year Mr. W. R. Hearst, junior, was in 
London, and in an interview he said: "Head- 
lines in British newspapers do not tell the story. 
About the only paper that is easy for me to 



214 SUB-EDITING 

read here is the Daily Express. Its front page is 
more like our papers at home. I think most of 
the British papers are inclined to be too sedate 
in their headings. Even an occasional touch 
of humour seems to be banned." 

A Conservative Tendency 

It is not surprising to find that there are, in 
responsible quarters in America, tendencies to 
a return to more restrained methods. I find 
myself in agreement with Mr. Walter Lippmann, 
formerly editor of the New York World, in his 
criticism of the fashions of the "popular" Press. 
After the 1914-18 War he foresaw a revolution 
in journalism, dating from "the profound revul- 
sion among educated people and among news- 
papermen themselves at the orgy of lying which 
the war propaganda let loose/' 

This type of journalism is not, I believe (says Mr. Lippmann) 
enduring. It contains within itself the seeds of its own dis- 
solution. For its actuating principle is to attract daily the 
most vivid attention of a large mass. Its object, therefore, is 
not to report events in their due relationships or to interpret 
them in ways that subsequent events will verify. It selects 
from the events of the day those aspects which most immedi- 
ately engage attention, and in place of the effort to see life 
steadily and whole it sees life dramatically, episodically and 
from what is called, in the jargon of the craft, the angle of 
human interest. This is highly effective for a while. But the 
method soon exhausts itself. When everything is dramatic, 
nothing after a while is dramatic ; when everything is highly 
spiced, nothing after a while has much flavour ; when every- 
thing is new and startling, the human mind just ceases to be 
startled. But that is not all. As the readers of this press live 
longer in the world, and as their personal responsibilities in- 
crease, they begin to feel the need of being genuinely informed 
rather than of being merely amused and excited. Gradually 
they discover that things do jiot happen as they are made to 
appear in the human interest stories. The realization begins to 
dawn upon them that they have been getting not the news but 



THE AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT 215 

a species of romantic fiction which they can get much better 
out of the movies and the magazines. I think I am not mis- 
taken in believing that the popular press has a transient circu- 
lation, that its readers pass through it on their way to maturity, 
and that it can continue to prosper on its original pattern only 
while there is a continuing supply of immature readers who have 
not yet felt the need of something else. 

As time goes on, therefore, one of two things happens to the 
popular commercial press. If its owners lack foresight and 
energy and know only how to repeat the original formulae, 
the newspaper gradually fails. If, on the other hand, they 
understand the nature of the process I am describing, they 
gradually transform the paper itself, making it more and more 
sober, less and less sensational, increasingly reliable and com- 
prehensive. In the extreme case, even of tabloid journalism in 
New York, one can see the growing respectability of the 
successful one and the steady degeneration of the disreputable 
one. 

In harmony with this outlook was the award 
by the School of Journalism of the University 
of Missouri of a medal of honour to the Man- 
chester Guardian for distinguished work in 
journalism. In conferring the award, Dr. 
Williams said the Guardian merited it " for 
defining by unremitting practice for the pro- 
fession everywhere the journalistic virtues of 
reliability and authority ; for its brilliant battle 
for liberalism; for sympathetic understanding 
of the points of view of other people and other 
nations ; for its courageous fight for peace ; and 
for its sensitiveness to moral ideals." The 
editor of the Guardian , Mr. E. T. Scott, in 
accepting the distinction as one he prized, said : 
"The essential qualities of good journalism are 
the same everywhere, and despite striking 
differences in appearance provided by American 
and British newspapers, there is no doubt that, 
for the most part, these differences cover the 
underlying unity of aim." 



2i6 SUB-EDITING 

One instance of "good journalism " in America 
may be mentioned in closing this chapter. It 
is typical of many that show how events of 
world-wide interest are adequately covered. 
Professor Einstein in 1931 delivered the Rhodes 
lectures at Oxford, his subject being "The 
Theory of Relativity." Such lectures are diffi- 
cult even for experts to digest. They were 
delivered in German. The Times published an 
explanatory summary, which spoke of the impos- 
sibility of following Einstein's detailed exposition 
without a knowledge of the "very difficult 
mathematics." The New York Times had a 
special full translation cabled on the Saturday 
night for its big issue of the following day. 
This is an example of the money and labour 
expended by the more serious American news- 
papers in dealing with such matters as poli- 
tics, high finance, exploration, antiquities, and 
science. 



CHAPTER IX 
THE RAW MATERIAL 

I MAKE no apology for closing this book with a 
chapter on what has been truly described as 
the raw material of journalism News. What 
is News? It seems an elementary question, but 
it is in reality a provocative one. Every journal- 
ist who thinks about the fundamentals of his 
work will have a theory and an opinion to offer. 
There is no one answer among the many that 
have been given that will fit the whole case, 
for journalism is a thing of infinite variety, 
appealing to different classes, whose outlook, 
interests, and tastes are sometimes as far as the 
poles asunder. I almost said that there is no 
common denominator in news, but that would 
need qualification. There are some events that 
interest and concern all people and which un- 
deniably possess absolute news value, seizing the 
attention of everybody to the exclusion of all 
other matters for the time. Such events are 
not of frequent occurrence, and on many, if not 
most, days, the world's happenings are mainly 
of sectional interest, and selection and display 
vary greatly in papers of different categories. 
But all newspapers must have news. They may 
run the most brilliant features and stunts, but 
their bread of sustenance is news. In the final 
issue it is not what Fleet Street w r ants and 
thinks, but what the great public requires, that 

217 



2i8 SUB-EDITING 

determines success or failure. There is no doubt 
about the public need of news. When the news- 
papers were momentarily crippled by the General 
Strike the Government saw the necessity of news 
in print (for broadcasting by wireless does not 
meet the case) and issued the British Gazette. 
True it was a poor substitute for the real thing, 
but its appearance was a proof that news is an 
essential of organized society. It follows that 
the papers that give the most news best meet 
the public need. 

News values are infinite in gradation, and 
sub-editorial staffs, in common with news 
rooms, have to assess them according to the 
policy and standard of their papers. In a 
popular newspaper the elements of value in 
order of importance have been stated as fol- 
lows : Drama ; comedy (not farce) ; sex (within 
limits) ; mystery ; money (the small investor) ; 
the romance of science; religion (growing in- 
terest among young people) ; personalities (the 
human touch) ; sport ; politics (once described 
as the bane of every night-editor in Fleet Street). 
On such a category as this it is perfectly possible 
to produce differing types of papers the one 
kind reliable and responsible, as well as inter- 
esting, and the other exhibiting all the vagaries 
of jazz journalism. - The masses of news pouring 
into an office may be converted into the one 
or the other by sub-editorial treatment. The 
trouble is that important news is often dull, 
and to be dull is a capital crime in most papers. 
Hence, when it comes to a choice between 
League or Lido, the Lido generally wins. A 



THE RAW MATERIAL 219 

little while ago the Bishop of Ely told a journal- 
ist that he was hurt because discussions at his 
Diocesan Conference of affairs of world-wide 
interest were not much noticed in the London 
papers. The journalist replied: "The papers do 
not care very much for that kind of thing. If 
you were to stand on your head on the plat- 
form, however, you would be in all the London 
papers." 

The Abnormal 

This gay retort probably shocked the Bishop, 
but it points to the fact that the abnormal, the 
fresh and the novel are high in the scale of news 
values. Even in local papers, which have to 
subsist largely on the bread and butter of 
ordinary routine things, there is every effort to 
make the fare more appetising by emphasizing 
the unusual. News, said Lord Northcliffe, is 
anything out of the ordinary. For example, in 
an average street of one hundred houses, ninety- 
nine will be occupied by respectable families 
model husbands, devoted wives, and ordinary 
children. But the hundredth is abnormal, pro- 
vides a divorce, a crime, triplets, or some other 
claim to notoriety, and at once "gets into the 
news/' A simple illustration is to be found in 
one of the prosaic tasks of the sub-editor's 
room, i.e. sorting out the police-court and 
inquest copy. Ninety per cent of this is gener- 
ally quite worthless because it presents no points 
of interest and records merely customary fines 
and sentences, and the common tragedies of the 
Coroner's Court. The remaining 10 per cent 



220 SUB-EDITING 

has a claim to print because of some point of 
novelty or humour or pathos, or because a case 
has a general application. In my reporting 
days I once had to cover a London by-election, 
one of the candidates in which had a quite ex- 
ceptional power of repartee. The heckling times 
were by far the most interesting "news" in the 
contest; so instead of reporting the platitudes 
of the speeches I devoted myself to the lively 
scenes that followed. One such story was appro- 
priately headed "The Voice" and consisted 
entirely of question and answer, verbal thrust 
and parry. But it is still true that the complete 
newspaper takes note of the routine things of 
life, because it is with these we have to "carry 
on" in the intervals between the high sensa- 
tions. Where journalistic enterprise comes in 
is in discovering real news in unlikely places, 
in finding interesting turns to humdrum stories, 
and in exploring new fields of virgin soil. The 
march of progress is so rapid that news horizons 
are always expanding. These opportunities are 
fully exploited in America. The Hearst news- 
papers, with more than twenty million readers, 
claim to be "the greatest carriers of the com- 
modity of news the world has ever seen." Their 
definition of news is worth noting 

Eager, restless, ambitious America has one great, dominating 
passion it wants to know I Whatever happens wherever it 
happens America must know, and know at once. Everything 
great, everything vital it must know, but it must know lesser 
things too. It must know if a Balkan king slips from his 
tottering throne, but it must also know what took place 
yesterday in its home town who died, who was married all 
the thousand and one things that go to make up the budget of 
a day's news. Everything that happens, everything that is 



THE RAW MATERIAL 221 

done or said or thought, must be known. This eager, healthy 
curiosity, this desire to know, this eternal search for new, full 
light on every subject, dominates America. It has made 
America what it is. It developed America discovered its 
gold and coal and oil harnessed its electricity founded its 
cities and schools made its farms built its factories. 

Mr. Gerald W. Johnson, of Baltimore, sets a 
good many fine hares running in his essay on 
"What is news?" No one, he argues, has yet 
discovered the absolute in news, for "news 
depends upon innumerable factors of all but 
infinite variation." He says it is futile to hope 
to set up an objective standard that may be 
applied anywhere and at any time. 

What was news yesterday is not news to-day, but may be 
news again to-morrow. What is news in Moscow is junk in 
New York, and what is news on I2oth Street may well be dead 
stuff in Washington Square. Nevertheless, it would be pre- 
posterous to assume that newspaper workers have no standards, 
and that they are incapable of formulating any. On the con- 
trary, every managing editor has a set of his own, as the city 
room knows to its cost; and every worker, from the rawest 
cub up, possesses his private, individual set, which he is eager 
to defend against the world. 

In the course of his interesting excursions on 
this subject Mr. Johnson describes as the most 
fascinating phase of newspaper work the dis- 
covery of news where no one had suspected its 
existence. A sub-editor on a weekly paper con- 
trolled by Lord Northcliffe was once sharply 
awakened from his inability to recognize news. 
One Saturday night, the late Mr. F. A. Mackenzie 
tells us in his book on Lord Beaverbrook, a 
message came through on the tape that Colonel 
Cody, an American who had been generally looked 
upon up to that time with amusement by serious 
folk, had succeeded in raising himself in a primitive 



222 SUB-EDITING 

flying machine over a hedge from one field to 
another at Alder shot. The message had barely 
been read when Northcliffe asked on the tele- 
phone what was being done with "this Cody 
story." The sub-editor hardly knew, but the* 
quick direction came: "Splash it. Splash it 
over a page and a half if you like. - Don't you 
realize, my boy, that this is the most important 
event that has happened in our time? This is 
the beginning of human flight." So i it proved 
to be. But Northcliffe was an enthusiast in 
aviation ; the sub-editor was not. It was a case 
of "spotting" big news in an apparently trivial 
setting. 

1 ' Talking Points 

"Talking points" are news. Macnair Wilson 
records that in the days when Northcliffe and 
Kennedy Jones were putting the Evening News 
on its feet, they aimed every day to seize upon 
such points. If I give yet another quotation 
about Northcliffe it is because a study of his 
principles and methods is of the highest value 
to young journalists 

What was it in the day's news, Harmsworth would ask, that 
men and women returning from business were likely to dis- 
cuss ? The "talking point" idea cut clean through the ancient 
traditions. For, while to-day the "talking point" might be a 
speech by Lord Rosebery, the new Liberal Prime Minister, to- 
morrow it would be the Derby or Ascot, or a divorce case, or a 
murder trial, or a fresh attempt to reach the North Pole, or the 
discovery of a cure for some disease, or a Royal procession, or a 
rumour of war. The old journalism had had its traditions 
and editors and politicians dictated them. It was the public 
who dictated the "talking points." The real editor of the 
Evening News was not Alfred Harmsworth but the people of 
London. There, I think, is the fundamental difference be- 
tween the newspapers of yesterday and the newspapers of 



THE RAW MATERIAL 223 

to-day. And there, too, I think, is Harmsworth's secret. His 
enemies, when his success became assured, accused him of 
"playing down" to the public; as usual they misunderstood. 
His attitude was that the public had a right to be interested in 
anything in which it chose to be interested. He did not dis- 
pute that interest ; on the contrary, he tried to discover it. 

Since those days the keenest of the exponents 
of "up-to-date" journalism have not been con- 
tent to discover "talking points"; they have 
created them by stunts and campaigns and 
crusades. This has been pushed to such lengths 
that the public is becoming frankly sceptical 
and cynical about some of the things it sees in 
print. When honest straightforward news is 
either ignored or distorted to some partisan end, 
the discriminating reader becomes suspicious, 
and those newspapers which, true to an honour- 
able tradition, give fair and impartial reports 
in their news columns, and reserve comment and 
criticism for their "views" columns, gain in 
public favour. But, unhappily, the transgres- 
sions, like the sin of Adam, involve the whole 
race in the consequences. The two different 
schools of journalism have been aptly defined 
by Mr. Rupert Beckett, chairman of the com- 
pany that controls the Yorkshire Post and the 
Leeds Mercury 

There are many newspapers that treat every item of news 
from the standpoint as to whether it will interest, if it does not 
thrill (a favourite word with this section of the Press), the 
great mass of their readers. A news editor of such a journal will 
reject everything that does not come up to his general standard 
of popular news interest. But these newspapers are not com- 
plete newspapers. The Yorkshire Post is in line with those 
journals, and I am thankful to say there are many left, that 
take as their test of news selection the criterion of broad public 
interest. Subjects that appeal only to the more intelligent and 
public-spirited classes of the community are treated as fully 



224 SUB-EDITING 

often more fully in the columns of The Yorkshire Post 
than the more sensational news. Proceedings in Parliament, 
matters affecting the great trades of the country, the affairs of 
our Empire and the policies of other nations with their reactions 
to the policy of this country, education, art, literature, sport, 
and many other subjects are treated by well-informed writers. 
The man or woman who wishes to be well informed, as is the 
desire of every educated person, can only be catered for in a 
newspaper that gives as complete a survey as possible of such 
matters. I believe that the newspapers that follow such a 
policy are essential to the welfare of the country, especially 
this country, which possesses a democratic Government based 
on the widest possible franchise. The people cannot use the 
vote intelligently unless they have an opportunity of consider- 
ing all the facts presented without prejudice, as they are 
presented in the leading papers in this country. I hold that 
such newspapers are necessary to good government and sane 
progress. 



An Arraignment 

An outspoken attack on the methods of the 
"popular Press " is made by Mr. George Blake 
in his pamphlet " The Press and the Public/' He 
traces what he terms the "process of vulgariza- 
tion" and the decline of our journalistic stand- 
ards, back to the discovery that the public 
prefers "tit-bits to solid fare, headlines to 
descriptions, sensation to facts/' which led to 
the foundation of the "popular Press," and the 
"ferocious competition for circulation." The 
leading article, he maintains, has lost its power 
in this section of the Press to influence the 
people, and appeals to the electorate in political 
matters are "made much more effectively in 
the sub-editor's room. . . . Policies are made 
by those whose business it is to arrange, select, 
and present the tidings of the day. A news- 
paper can and does most effectively influence 
the public by its method of handling news." 



THE RAW MATERIAL 225 

No honest journalist can look back without 
shame, he says, on the suppressions and em- 
phases of the British Gazette during the General 
Strike. In handling the news sub-editors have 
" three weapons of distortion : Selection, Em- 
phasis, and Suppression." Although Mr. Blake 
is careful to acquit the "sober-sided" news- 
papers of these crimes, he evidently fears their 
active perpetration elsewhere. Opinions will 
differ as to the extent of the evils he arraigns, 
but his protest throws a strong light on the 
importance of the functions of the sub-editor. 

In his pungent little piece of satire "Rules 
for the conduct of newspaper editors with respect 
to politics and news" (with the sub-head 
"wisdom for the wicked") Leigh Hunt in his 
Examiner in 1808, dealing with "invention in 
news," wrote: "If your favourite statesman is 
in office, it is your business to announce nothing 
but victories ; if he is out, conquest must vanish 
with him. . . . With talents for disputation, 
talents for fiction and talents for weeping and 
smiling, no editor need be afraid of being quite 
poor, provided he does not become an honest 
man." For a biting article on the Prince 
Regent, which was Hunt's passionate protest 
against the extravagant eulogies of the syco- 
phants, he was sent to prison. The problems of 
journalism in 1931 may be different in form, 
but in essence some of them are not new. 

"Invention" of news is not always practised 
for high political purposes. Sometimes its ob- 
ject is to brighten up dull times. Not all these 
efforts have the happy ending of one which 

l6 (G.2I2I) 24 PP- 



226 SUB-EDITING 

was the theme of a story that went the rounds 
not long since. A news editor is reported to 
have complained that the messages of a local 
correspondent in an important port were dull, 
and asked for "some strong human stuff." On 
the quaysides, he suggested, there must be many 
good stories to be found. The correspondent, 
failing to discover them in actual fact, con- 
cocted a yarn about an engaged couple who 
were down on their luck and, as a last desperate 
resort, sold all the presents they had given each 
other and left as steerage passengers to try their 
fortune in New York. The story delighted the 
editor, who published it, complimented the 
correspondent, and awarded him a bonus, and 
told him that the New York correspondent had 
been instructed by cablegram to watch the 
adventures of the young couple when they 
arrived there. The inventor of the story was 
alarmed and awaited exposure and dismissal, 
but the day after the ship reached New York 
he was amazed and relieved to see in the paper 
a column interview with the mythical couple. 
Thus did the New World redress the balance of 
the Old ! 

Stories in Everything 

The news net is cast very widely nowadays ; 
the journalist looks at life and sees stories in 
everything. Mr. Dooley says that sin is news, 
and with equal emphasis Mr. Hugh Redwood, 
who has written a remarkable book on "God 
in the Slums/' claims that the Gospel is news. 
The churches themselves are awakening to the 



THE RAW MATERIAL 227 

fact that they have something of interest to 
offer to the Press, and that the resultant public- 
ity is of advantage to themselves. That good 
copy is to be found in religious subjects was 
demonstrated by Mr. Horace Thorogood in 
the Evening Standard in his articles on the 
many churches and sects of London. Churches, 
as well as societies innumerable, suffer from the 
ineptitude of their own propagandists, who do 
not know what the Press and the public want. 
They have not got the news sense ; it is the work 
of the trained journalist to discover the things 
of real interest. The late Mr. G. E. Beer, after 
his retirement from the post of news editor 
of the Daily Mail, pointed out that the major- 
ity of English newspapers recognized that 
religious news is necessary to the making of a 
complete newspaper. ''The greater portion of 
my journalistic Hfe," he said, "was spent in 
organizing the obtaining of news, and I affirm 
that religious news is as much news, and is as 
eagerly read by many, as is political, com- 
mercial and sporting news." 

It is equally true that crime and scandal have 
a strong "pull" in the news; hence we may 
find a "popular" paper taking for its splash 
story the adventures of a Hollywood star in 
preference to the serious and important events 
of the day. The public taste, of which this is a 
reflection, was recognized by Daniel Defoe, one 
of the first and most brilliant journalists. Refer- 
ring to his "Moll Flanders" he wrote: "The 
moral 'tis hoped will keep the reader serious 
. . . there cannot be the same brightness and 



228 SUB-EDITING 

beauty in relating the penitent part as is in the 
criminal part. ... It is too true that the differ- 
ence lies not in the real worth of the subject so 
much as in the gust and palate of the reader." 
A similar estimate of the public taste was formed 
by the writer of a "proposal for a printed news- 
paper," which Addison gave in the Spectator : 
"I have often thought that a News-letter of 
Whispers, written every Post and sent about 
the Kingdom . . . might be highly gratifying to 
the public, as well as beneficial to the author. 
By Whispers I mean those pieces of news which 
are communicated as Secrets, and which bring 
a double Pleasure to the Hearer; first, as they 
are private History, and in the next place as they 
have always in them a Dash of Scandal. These 
are the two chief Qualifications in an Article 
of News, which recommend it in a more than 
ordinary manner to the Ears of the Curious." 

The capacity for "picking up" news, which 
was the means of livelihood of the letter writers 
of the seventeenth century, has nowhere been 
better shown in later days than in the career 
of Delane. He was a great editor whose main 
interest in life was his paper and its leading 
articles, but he was also a keen collector of news. 
He had the habit of announcing big news in the 
leading article. Sir Edward Cook points out 
that the importance of Delane's first leader 
was not only in its focusing of public attention 
on the subject of the day, but 

The article was made of further importance in another way 
a way which may seem strange and benighted to practitioners 
in the newest journalism. The article was the place, and the 
only place, in which the best news was given. . . . Great 



THE RAW MATERIAL 229 

excitement was caused by the announcement in The Times 
that Peel had resolved to repeal the Corn Laws. That piece of 
news was, in the language of American journalism, a "scoop 11 
or a "beat" of the first order. It caused a great sensation; 
but no piece of news was ever given in a less sensational way. 
It appeared as the first paragraph of the first leader and 
nowhere else in the paper. . . . There was, as a rule, no display 
of such political news elsewhere ; there were no headlines. If a 
comparable case be taken from The Times of a recent date, the 
contrast between the old method and the new will be made 
apparent. In July, 1914, The Times obtained exclusive posses- 
sion of the news that King George had convened a Conference 
at Buckingham Palace in the hope of obtaining a settlement of 
the Irish question by consent. . . . The earlier announcement 
made the greater stir. But the later was made with the greater 
noise. There was, of course, a leading article on the subject, 
but the article was only comment. The announcement itself 
was made in a news column with loud headlines and in boldly 
displayed type. 

Several instances are on record of Delane's 
smartness in getting news "scoops." I may 
mention a typical one. Meeting his doctor, Sir 
Richard Quain, at the Athenaeum, Delane talked 
of the weather and the conversation went on to 
different climates and their effects on different 
constitutions. The doctor casually mentioned 
than he had been telling Lord Northbrook, in 
answer to a question, that a hot climate might 
suit a delicate girl very well. Next day it was 
announced in The Times that Lord Northbrook 
had been appointed Viceroy of India to succeed 
Lord Mayo. The new Viceroy was puzzled and 
had to declare in response to many congratula- 
tions that they were quite premature "how 
The Times got hold of it I cannot imagine, for 
no one but myself and Gladstone have even 
discussed it." It was a clever piece of journalism 
judged even by the latest standards. 



230 SUB-EDITING 

An Exhortation 

As one who is now in the ranks of the veterans 
I may claim the privilege of a final exhortation. 
It shall be brief. 

In your work as a journalist you have to look 
at the whole of life its seamy side as well as its 
noble. Picture the great panorama in all its 
vivid contrasts, but preserve your standards of 
truth, decency, and goodness. You work in a 
calling which in its best forms was originally a 
public service but is now passing from the con- 
trol of the craftsman to that of the financier. 
Time may bring a return to earlier ideals who 
can tell? but whatever the future may hold 
you will do well to remember that you have a 
public responsibility. The law of the land limits 
and controls the Press for the public safety and 
good; but beyond this there is a moral duty 
which cannot be evaded. Honesty is the best 
policy. The power of the Press in promoting 
national and international peace and well-being 
is unquestioned. In serving it strive to be "a 
workman that needeth not to be ashamed." 



APPENDIX I 

SOURCES OF INFORMATION 

THERE is a growing volume of literature about 
journalism, historical, biographical and voca- 
tional, which is extremely valuable and inter- 
esting to the student. In the preparation of this 
book I have been indebted to the following 

"The Press," Sir Alfred Robbins (Benn). 

"Northcliffe," Hamilton Fyfe (Allen & Unwin). 

"My Northcliffe Diary," Tom Clarke (Gollancz). 

"From the City to Fleet Street," Hall Richardson (Paul). 

"A Traveller in News," Beach Thomas (Chapman & Hall). 

"The Book of Fleet Street," Pope (Cassell). 

"The Manchester Guardian," W. Haslam Mills (Chatto & 
Windus). 

"The Inky Way," Mrs. C. N. Williamson (Chapman & Hall). 

"News Writing," Spencer (Heath). 

"Modern Journalism," Carr and Stevens (Pitman). 

University of Missouri Bulletins. 

"Conditions of Life and Work of Journalists" (International 
Labour Office, Geneva, 1928). 

"Lord Northcliffe," Wilson (Benn). 

Borzoi Handbooks of Journalism "Printing for the Journal- 
ist," Allen, and "What is News," Johnson (Knopf). 

"Friends and Adventures," " T" of Punch (Cape). 

"Fleet Street and Downing Street," Kennedy Jones 
(Hutchinson). 

"Delane," Cook (Constable). 

"Law of Torts," Fraser (Sweet & Maxwell). 

"Law for Journalists," Pilley (Pitman). 

"The Making of an Editor," W. L. Courtney (Macmillan). 

"The America of To-day," J. A. Spender (Benn). 

"Beaverbrook," F. A. Mackenzie (Jarrolds). 

"The Press and the Public," George Blake (Faber & Faber). 

"History of the New York Times," Davis (New York Times) . 

"The Newspaper," Dibblee (Williams & Norgate). 

"W. R. Hearst," Winkler (Cape). 

"Joseph Pulitzer," Seitz (Bles). 

Newspaper World, London. 

World's Press News, London. 

Editor and Publisher, New York. 

231 



APPENDIX II 

SALARIES AND CONDITIONS 

THE following minimum rates of pay and 
conditions of work are embodied in agreements 
made between the National Union of Journalists 
and the various organizations of proprietors. 
Summaries are given first, showing the present 
position (1945), and the texts of agreements 

follow 

LONDON 

London papers in membership with the Newspaper Proprietors' 
Association: For fully-qualified reporters and sub-editors, mean- 
ing those who have served in that capacity for a period of three 
or more years, and for creative artists after seven years' practical 
experience, inclusive of any period spent in art school, 9 gs. a week. 

Press photographers: first and second year (improvers), ^4 43.; 
third and fourth year, 5 55. ; fifth year, b 6s. ; sixth and seventh 
year, 7 ys. ; after seventh year, 8 8s. 

To the above a war bonus is added, by agreement between the 
N.P.A. and the Printing and Kindred Trades Federation, of 173. 6d. 
for seniors and 7s. for juniors. 

(Text of agreement, page 235, etc.) 

LONDON NEWSPAPERS PROVINCIAL ASSOCIATION 

For journalists, creative artists and photographers employed on 
the editorial staffs working in the publishing offices in Manchester 
and Leeds, owned and controlled by members of the Association, 
weekly salaries as follows 

SENIORS : age 24 and over, with three years' experience, 8 153. 6. 

JUNIORS: age 16, i 155.; age 17, 2 8s. 3d.; age 18, 3 is. 6d. ; 
age 19, 3 i8s. 6d. ; age 20, 4 i6s. 6d. ; age 21, ^5 143. od. ; age 22, 
6 us. 6d.; age 23, 7 95. 

War bonuses are incorporated in these rates. 

(Text of agreement, pages 237-8.) 

NEWS AGENCIES 

(PRESS ASSOCIATION AND EXCHANGE TELEGRAPH Co.) 

SENIORS: 8 8s. 

JUNIORS (beginning service before nineteenth birthday) : first 
full year of service, 2 2s. ; second full year of service, $ 35. ; third 
full year of service, ^4 43. ; fourth full year of service, 5 55. ; fifth 
full year of service, 6 6s. ; sixth full year of service, j 78; 

i6x (G.2I2I) 233 



234 



SUB-EDITING 



Juniors beginning in their twentieth year train for five years and 
start at 3 38., and juniors beginning in their twenty-first year train 
for four years at 4 45., rising by annual increments of i is. In 
no case shall the training period be continued beyond the twenty- 
fifth birthday at less than 8 8s. 

To these rates a war bonus of rys. 6d. for seniors and 8s. for 
juniors is added. 

REUTERS 

First-year juniors who have reached the age of 21, /4 48. ; second- 
year juniors who have reached the age of 21, 5 55. ; third-year 
juniors who have reached the age of 21, 7 /s. ; thereafter, for 
seniors of four years' experience, of which two at least have been 
with Reuters, ^9 93. 

To these rates a war bonus of lys. 6d. for seniors and 8s. for 
juniors is added. 

(Text of agreement, page , 238, etc.) 

NEWSPAPER SOCIETY 

Provincial newspapers as in the following table - 



Lje 


A 

/ .s. d. 


H 

/ 5. (1. 


C 

4 s. d. 


T) 

/ .s. d. 


1C 

L - s - < / - 


F 

/ s. d. 


18 


I M 


I 15 


i 17 o 


1 18 


210 


z 3 o 


19 


2 4 6 


270 


2 9 6 


2 1 J O 


214 6 


2 17 


20 


2 15 h 


2 19 o 


3 2 o 


34 


3 * o 


311 6 


21 


3 6 6 


3 10 6 


3M ft 


3 1 6 


410 


4 5 ft 


22 


4 3 ft 


480 


4 13 o 


4 15 ft 


520 


5?o 


23 


4 14 o 


5 


5 5 ft 


5 ft 


5 15 ft 


I o 


2 4 


511 o 


5 *7 ft 


640 


7 6 


6 16 o 


726 



A, weekly papers; B, weekly papers in places w r here daily papers 
are published; C, weekly papers within 12 miles of Charing Cross; 
1), daily papers published in towns of fewer that 100,000 inhabitants ; 
K, daily papers published in towns of between 100,000 and 250,000 
inhabitants; V, daily papers published in towns of more than 
250,000 inhabitants. 

An increase of 8s. 6d. per week became payable to seniors in 
Newspaper Society offices as from January, 1946. This should be 
added to the rates in the last line of above table. Appropriate 
increases are payable to those in the lower age groups. 

(Text of agreement, page 241, etc.) 

LONDON OFFICES OF PROVINCIAL DAILY PAPERS 

ADULTS: first year's service in London, $ 145. 6d. ; second 
year's service in London, g 5s. ; third year's service in London, 
g i5s. 6d. 

JUNIORS: first year's service in London, /3 jgs. bd ; second 
year's service in London, 5 4S. 6d. ; third year's service in London, 
7 9S- 6d. 

War bonuses are incorporated in these rates. 



APPENDIX II 235 

LONDON LINAGE RATES 

The Newspaper Proprietors' Association agrees to the following 
minimum payments to non-salaried correspondents for all general 
home news (not commercial, financial or sporting) sent by them 
and used in London papers : up to 60 words, a minimum of 2s. 6d. ; 
all matter above 60 words to be paid for at the minimum rate of 
ajd. for each eight words; headlines to be paid for at linage rate 
when provided by the correspondent and used. 

SCOTLAND 

The English agreement with the Newspaper Society applies to 
union daily newspaper offices in membership with the Scottish 
Daily Newspaper Society. 

SCOTTISH WEEKLY NEWSPAPER PROPRIETORS' 
ASSOCIATION 

Weekly papers 

SENIORS: age 24 and over, 5 us. 

JUNIORS : age 20, 2 153. od. ; age 21, 3 6s. bd. ; age 22, 4 33. 6d. ; 
age 23, /4 143. (>d. 

Weekly papers in places where daily papers are published 

SENIORS : age 24 and over, 5 ijs. (>d. 

JUNIORS: age 20, 2 193.; age 21, 3 los. 6d. ; age 22, ^4 8s.; 
age 23, 5. 

(Text of agreement, page 244.) 

AGREEMENTS 
NEWSPAPER PROPRIETORS' ASSOCIATION 

(rf)tli March, 1921.) 

i . GENERAL 

It is agreed by the Newspaper Proprietors' x\ssociation and the 
National Union of Journalists that, as Irom the date of signing this 
Agreement, the following minimum rates of payment, maximum 
hours of labour and general conditions of employment for the exclu- 
sive full-time services of members of editorial staffs (including 
creative artists, press photographers and photographic printers*) 
shall be recognized in the offices of all London newspapers owned 
and controlled by members of the Association. 

2. MINIMUM SALARIES 

No fully-qualified reporter or fully-qualified sub-editor (including 
members of Parliamentary corps), meaning reporter or sub-editor 
who has served in that capacity for a period of three or more years, 
shall be engaged or employed for exclusive full-time services at a 
salary of less than nine guineas per week [increased by war bonuses 
to ^10 6s. fxl.J, except on financial or sporting papers, in which 
cases the minimum salaries for such employment shall be eight 
guineas per week [increased by war bonuses to g 53. 6d.]. 

The granting of any increases to higher paid members of editorial 
staffs on account of merit shall, as heretofore, be left to the discretion 
of the employer. 

3. PHOTOGRAPHERS 

The following minimum weekly rates of payment shall be observed 
by members of the Association for the exclusive services of photo- 
grapher pressmen, according to the years of service as photographers, 



236 SUB-EDITING 

not necessarily in the same office: Photographer Pressmen: first 
and second year (improvers), ^4 43. ; third and fourth year, ^5 55. ; 
fifth year, 6 6s. ; Sixth and seventh year, j ys. ; after seventh 
year, 8 8s. Hours to be regulated by the general clause, but 
existing arrangements as to holidays and payments for additional 
working hours to continue. 

4. ARTISTS 

No qualified creative artist, meaning an artist who works on 
materials other than stone or metals, but who may be called upon to 
touch up, shall be engaged or employed after seven years' practical 
experience inclusive of any period spent in art school at a salary 
of less than nine guineas per week. 

5, SPECIAL DAY ENGAGEMENTS 

Saturday or other special day engagements for Sunday papers, by 
reporters or sub-editors, shall be paid for at the rate of not less than 
2 2s. for a reasonable working day. 

Duty after Saturday midnight, on' Sunday papers published after 
6 a.m., to be paid for at the minimum rate of 3 35. for a reasonable 
working day. 

6. HOURS OF WORK AND HOLIDAYS 

For all members of editorial staffs a full working week shall con- 
sist of not more than five and a half nights of seven hours each, in- 
cluding meal times (total of 38^ hours), for regular night workers, or 
five and a-half days of eight hours each, including meal times (total 
of 44 hours), for day workers. Reporters' hours in general practice 
not to exceed 44 hours in each week, unless necessitated by out-of- 
town engagements. 

This weekly half-day leave shall be granted to night workers as 
one full night's leave in each fortnight, or two full nights' leave in 
each four weeks at the discretion of the management. The existing 
practice of at least one full day off in compensation for the long hours 
worked on Saturday for Sunday publications shall continue undis- 
turbed by this agreed extra half-holiday. 

All members of editorial staffs shall be entitled to at least three 
weeks' holiday, with pay, annually in the six months from ist May to 
3 ist October, also two days' leave at or near Christmas time, and one 
day in lieu of Good Friday. In the case of sporting and financial 
papers the time for holidays shall be fixed by arrangement with the 
management. 

7. PARLIAMENTARY WORK 

Extra Turns : Morning papers (per day or part of day), 1 us. 6d. 
Evening papers (per afternoon, except when House meets at noon 
or earlier), i is. Evening papers (when House meets at noon or 
earlier), i n 6s. 

A week shall consist of not more than five days. When Parliament 
sits on a sixth day in any week, note-takers working on that day 
shall be granted an equivalent day's relief or pay. 

8. SPACE WQRK 

Journalists employed solely on space rates on general newspapers 
shall receive not less than i is. for any one assignment, but may be 
required to carry out more than one engagement within a reasonable 



APPENDIX II 237 

working day for the same fee. This clause shall not apply to occa- 
sional contributors to sporting papers. 

After three months' probation, the reporter (fully qualified as in 
clause 2) who has been employed daily and regularly on space rates 
shall be guaranteed a minimum of nine guineas weekly for his ex- 
clusive full-time services. 

This Agreement shall be binding upon both parties for twelve 
months from the date of signing the Agreement, and shall be termin- 
able thereafter by three months' notice from either side. 

* Since the making of this agreement photographic printers have 
been transferred to the National Society of Operative Printers and 
Assistants. 

LONDON NEWSPAPERS' PROVINCIAL ASSOCIATION 

(i9th July, 1944) 
i. EMPLOYERS COVERED 

This agreement shall apply to journalists, creative artists, and 
photographers employed on the editorial staffs working in the pub- 
lishing offices in Manchester and Leeds owned and controlled by 
members of the Association. 

2. MINIMUM SALARIES 

DAILY PAPERS Seniors. The minimum salary for the exclusive 
full-time services on a daily paper of a member of the Union (of 
either sex) covered by this agreement who has attained the age of 
24 years and has served for three years or more in one or other of 
the capacities named in Clause i shall be eight pounds fifteen 
shillings and sixpence per week (this minimum incorporates the 
war bonuses granted prior to the date of the agreement). 

Juniors. The scale of payment for junior members, based 
approximately on the percentages of the senior rate shown below, 
shall be 

Age 16, per week \ 158. (approx. percentage of senior rate, 20); 
age 17, per week 2 8s. 3d. (approx. percentage of senior rate, 27^) ; 
age 1 8, per week $ is. 6d. (approx. percentage of senior rate, 35) ; 
age 19, per week ^3 i8s. 0. (approx. percentage of senior rate, 45) ; 
age 20, per week 4 i(>s. (>d. (approx. percentage of senior rate, 55) ; 
age 21, per week 5 143. (approx. percentage of senior rate, 65) ; 
age 22, per week t> us. 6d. (approx. percentage of senior rate, 75) ; 
age 23, per week 7 9s. (approx. percentage of senior rate, 85). 

3. JUNIORS RATIO 

Juniors may be appointed, on a ratio not exceeding one junior to 
four seniors. 

4. HOURS 

DAILY PAPERS. For members of editorial staffs on daily papers 
the full working fortnight in the case of a sub-editor or creative 
artist shall consist of not more than eleven days or nights, totalling 
eighty hours including meal times. In the case of a reporter or 
photographer shall normally consist of not more than eleven days 
or nights, totalling eighty hours including meal times; but he 
(or she) may be required to work additional hours, which, however, 
unless necessitated by out of town engagements, shall not bring the 
total hours to more than eighty-eight per fortnight. 



238 



SUB-EDITING 



5. SUNDAY PAPERS 

For engagements of seniors on Sunday papers the minimum salary 
shall be three guineas for a day or night of eight hours (including 
meal times) extra payment at the rate of 8s. per hour to be made 
for time worked beyond eight hours. Such regular engagements shall 
be subject to a month's notice on either side. 

Notwithstanding Clause 8 of this agreement employers shall have 
the right to call upon members of the Union engaged for Sunday 
paper production to work the eight hours as stipulated, or to reduce 
the present hours worked in excess of eight hours to eight hours, 
provided that by so doing no member shall suffer a reduction in 
his pay. 

6. HOLIDAYS 

Members of the Union covered by this agreement shall be en- 
titled to an annual holiday with pay as follows - 

DAILY PAPERS after six months' service: seniors three weeks, 
juniors two weeks. 

SUNDAY PAPERS : If they have worked for twenty-five Saturdays 
-two Saturdays. Not less that twelve but not more than twenty - 
four Saturdays- -one Saturday. 

7, DISPUTES 

Any dispute as to the terms of this agreement or as to any ques- 
tion arising under it shall at the request of either side be referred 
to a joint committee consisting of the Technical Committee of the 
Association (or four nominees of it) and the Union (or four nominees 
of it) ; and in the event of their failure to arrive at agreement 
the matter shall be referred to the Council of the Association and 
the Executive Committee of the Union, who failing to reach agree- 
ment shall refer the matter for settlement through conciliation 
machinery to be agreed between the parties. Pending such reference 
and decision no hostile action shall be taken by either side. 

8. BETTER CONDITIONS 

Any member of an editorial staff who at the time of the signing 
of this agreement had a salary or condition superior to those pro- 
vided herein shall not be affected adversely as a result of this 
agreement. 

9. PERIOD AND STABILIZATION 

This agreement shall have effect from the 24th July, 1944, subject 
to six months' notice of termination by either party, but it is agreed 
that the Stabilization Clause of the agreement between the London 
Newspapers Provincial Association and the Printing and Kindred 
Trades Federation of 2nd December, 1943, shall be held as binding 
and that the adjustment of anomalies provided for in that clause 
shall be deemed to have been affected by this agreement. 



NEWS AGENCIES 

AGREEMENT of sist March, 1922, made with The Press Associa- 
tion Limited, The Central News Limited, and the Exchange 
Telegraph Company Limited. 



APPENDIX II 239 

GENERAL REPORTERS AND SUB-EDITORS 
i. Minimum Rates of Payment 

No fully qualified reporter or sub-editor of 24 years or over who 
has been serving in such capacity or capacities for at least three 
years shall be engaged at a salary of less that 8 8s, a week (increased 
by War bonuses to g 5s. 6d.) for exclusive full-time service during 
the recognized hours of labour as set out in Clauses 2 and 3. 
2. Hours of Work and Holidays 

A full working week in London shall consist of not more than 
5j days of eight hours each, including meal time (total of 44 hours a 
week) . A reporter who is employed out of London on a seventh day 
in any week shall receive a day off, or alternatively, at the discretion 
of the management, a full day's pay. 

The weekly half-day leave may be given as one full day's leave in 
each two weeks. 

At least three weeks' holiday, with pay, shall be given annually 
to each member who has been employed for twelve months, in the 
six months from ist May to 3ist October; extra days' leave being 
given in each office at Christmas, Easter, and Whitsun at the dis- 
cretion of the management. 

Members who have not served 12 months shall have holidays 
as follows: after 6 months' service, 10 days; after 7 months' ser- 
vice, 1 1 days ; after 8 months' service, 1 2 days ; after 9 months' 
service, 14 days ; after 10 months' service, 15 days; after n months' 
service, 17 days. Sundays arc included in these holidays. The 
sporting staffs' holiday may be arranged to be given at any time in 
the year. 

3. Work Beyond Normal Hours, and Special Duties 

Where a member is required to work after his normal day of eight 
hours, he shall receive an allowance (excluding travelling expenses, 
'phones, etc.) of not less than 33. 6d. for each occasion on which he is 
retained beyond one and a half hours, 75. 6d. if retained beyond three 
hours, and los. 6d. if retained beyond four hours. 

Where a member is required to work in London on a seventh day 
in any week he shall receive not less than a full day's pay (i.e. two- 
elevenths of his regular weekly salary), or, alternatively, at the dis- 
cretion of the management, a day off. 

Where a member is required to assist in Parliament beyond his 
normal hours he shall receive special payment of not less than 75. for 
each occasion on which he is retained beyond one and a half hours, 
and if retained beyond four hours not less than 153. 
4. Expenses 

Subsistence expenses of not less than i 53. per day shall be paid 
to members required to be out of London overnight; and not less 
than I2s. 6d. per day out of town. 

JUNIORS 

5. Training Period and Rates of Pay 

The period of training of juniors engaged and beginning service 
before their nineteenth birthday shall not exceed six years from the 
date of their engagement, and the following minimum weekly rates 
shall be paid : first full year of service, 2 2s. ; second full year of 
service, ^3 33. ; third full year of service, ^4 43. ; fourth full year of 



240 SUB-EDITING 

service, ^5 53. ; fifth full year of service, 6 6s. ; sixth full year of 
service, 7 75. 

A junior whose services are retained after completion of the full 
period of six years shall be paid the minimum salary of 8 8s. 

For juniors who begin their training in their twentieth year the 
maximum training period shall be five years, beginning at a weekly 
salary of 3 33. and rising by annual increments of i is. ; and for 
those beginning in their twenty-first year the training period shall 
not exceed four years, the rate of pay beginning at 4 43. and rising 
by annual increments of ^i is. a week. 

In no case shall the training period be continued beyond the 
twenty-fifth birthday at less than 8 8s. 

The number of juniors employed shall not exceed 15 per cent of the 
total number of general and sporting reporters and sub-editors. 
(Parliamentary and Law Court Staffs not to be included as a basis for 
this percentage computation.) No agency shall employ more than 
eight juniors at any one time. 

A junior employed at 3ist March, 1922, may be required to serve 
one more year as a junior than he would have done had the agree- 
ment of gth January, 1920, remained in force. 

There shall be no reduction of salary as a consequence of this 
agreement. 

PARLIAMENTARY STAFF 

6. Minimum Rates of Payment 

No reporter shall be employed at less than eight guineas a week. 

7. Hours of Work and Holidays 

Members of staffs shall be guaranteed a minimum of forty weeks' 
engagement in the year ending 3ist December, 1922, and shall be 
required to work, when Parliament is in Session, on parliamentary 
work only and on such days only as Parliament may be sitting. 

A full working week shall consist normally of not more than five 
days, but where either House meets on a Saturday a member may be 
required to attend. 

Where a sitting extends beyond 2 a.m. each member retained shall 
receive not less than los. 6d. on each such occasion. 

Three weeks' holiday, including the ordinary Kaster and Whitsun 
recesses, shall be given with pay during the period of engagement to 
each member, extending, if necessary, the period of engagement 
beyond the forty weeks guaranteed in order to carry this out. 

LAW COURTS STAFF 

8. Minimum Rates of Payment 

A reporter engaged to supply Law Courts reports exclusively for an 
agency shall receive at least minimum rate, including commission, 
of eight guineas a week, 1 or thirty- two guineas in each four weeks, or 
1 pro rata. Under this system of payment adjustment may be made at 
the end of each four weeks during which the Courts are sitting, and 
where on the average of four weeks the minimum of thirty-two 
guineas has not been earned, the difference between the amount of 
actual earnings received and thirty-two guineas shall be paid to the 
members concerned. 

The rates of commission, which shall be calculated on a basis of a 
i, 600 word column, shall be as follows 

Press Association, Ltd., 123. per column of 1,600 words, and 35. 
for each duplicated column. 



APPENDIX II 241 

Exchange Telegraph Co., Ltd., and Central News, Ltd., 153. per 
column of 1,600 words, and 7$. 6d. for each duplicated column. 

A minimum of 2S. 6d. for each paragraph, and a proportion for 
duplicates, shall be paid. 

Members of staffs shall be engaged for forty-two weeks in each 
year (i.e. excluding the long vacation), and shall be required to work 
on Law Courts duties only. 

1 By agreement of July, 1935, the minimum was raised to eight and a half guineas a 
jveek, except for first year men in the Courts, who for that period may be paid eight 
guineas. At the end of twelve months they also become entitled to eight and a half 
guineas. 

SPORTING STAFF 

9. The conditions laid down in Clauses i, 2, 3, and 4 for general 
reporters and sub-editors shall apply. 

SPACEMEN 
10. Minimum Rates of Payment 

A spaceman who is assigned a London engagement shall be paid not 
less 1 than 73. 6d. for any such engagement undertaken for that 
agency only, and where the value of the copy merits it the manage- 
ment shall mark it accordingly at a higher rate. 

If he is assigned one or more engagements, the pursuit of which 
requires that he be occupied for that agency only for a working day 
of eight hours (meal times included), he shall receive not less than 
/Ji us. 6d. for each such day. 

GENERAL 

ii. Period of Agreement 

This agreement shall take effect as from 3ist March, 1922, and 
shall, with the exception of the clause relating to parliamentary staffs, 
continue in force for one year, and thereafter may be terminated by 
three months' notice on cither side. 

BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION 

On 6th April, 1937, the British Broadcasting Corporation agreed 
with representatives of the Union that the London newspaper 
minimum rate of g 95. a week should be applicable in principle to 
its two news departments as well as to the Radio Times. 

PROVINCES AND LONDON SUBURBS 

THE NEWSPAPER" SOCIETY 

(22nd March, 1921) 

Clause i of this agreement was amended on the ist September, 
1944, by the addition of rates covering London suburban papers. 
The various rates are given in the table headed "Newspaper 
Society," on page 234. 

2. These rates are standard minimum rates, and nothing in this 
agreement precludes employers paying more than these rates. 
Salaries paid above the minima are not to be considered standard 
rates. 

3. These minimum rates to apply to members of the National 
Union of Journalists, irrespective of sex, who have attained the age 
of 23 and who have earned their living as journalists on morning, 
evening, or weekly newspapers for three years. (See below for modi- 
fication of this clause.) 



242 SUB-EDITING 

4. Nothing in this agreement shall be held to necessitate the 
increase of existing salaries which are higher than those herein laid 
down, but the granting of any increases to higher paid members on 
account of merit shall be left to the discretion of the employers. 

5. An employee in an office publishing daily and weekly papers 
shall be paid at the daily paper rate. 

6. The minimum of district representatives (excluding London 
representatives of provincial papers) shall not be more than 55. a 
week less than the minimum of his head office. Where the district 
rate is higher than the head office rate the district representative 
shall be paid at least the head office rate. 

7. These rates shall be retrospective to 26th January, 1921. (This 
does not apply to the Suburban London rates which have effect from 
ist September, 1944.) 

8. A Standing Joint Committee of five representatives from each 
organization shall be formed to discuss any question of difficulty 
arising out of this Agreement, or any grievance which an employee or 
group of employees may have, provided that a statement as to such 
grievance has been forwarded to the employer concerned, either by 
the members themselves or by an official of the Union acting on 
their behalf, and satisfactory agreement has been unattainable. 
This Committee shall be called together as and when required by the 
respective secretaries, and shall meet within 28 days of either side 
notifying the other of its desire for a meeting and the particular 
grounds upon which it is desired. 

The Scottish Daily Newspaper Society, on behalf of the Union 
daily newspaper offices in its membership, hereby agree to follow the 
foregoing Agreement as if it had been made between the Scottish 
Daily Newspaper Society and the National Union of Journalists. 

Clause 7 above does not, of course, apply to the London Suburban 
rates, which had effect from ist September, 1944. 
SUPPLEMENTARY AGREEMENT, May, 1924, rescinding Clause 
3 of agreement dated 22nd March, 1921, and substituting the 
following 

[Clauses 2 and 3 (b) and (c) of this agreement were amended on 
ist September, 1944, by the addition of ages 18 and 19 to scale and 
consequential changes.] 

1. The minimum rates provided under the main agreement shall 
apply to members of the N.U.J. irrespective of sex, who have 
attained the age of 24, and who have earned their living as journal- 
ists on morning, evening, and weekly newspapers for four years, 
except as otherwise provided for in the following clause numbered 3. 

2. There shall be a junior scale as follows 

At age 1 8, not less than 30 per cent of the rates provided in 
Clause i ; 19, 40 per cent; 20, 50 per cent; 21, 60 per cent; 22, 
75 per cent; 23, 85 per cent. 

3. (a) A junior, to be entitled to these scales, shall have had two 
years' experience in a newspaper office, of which at least one year 
shall have been on the journalistic staff, or shall have continued his 
education until entering journalism. 

(b) A junior entering journalism from some other trade or pro- 
fession at over the age of 18 shall serve a probationary period of six 
months at 25 per cent of the minimum wage applicable at the age 
of 24, and shall then, if retained, receive the scale rate of his age 
as set out above. 



APPENDIX II 243 

(c) The salaries of learners up to the age of 18 shall be arranged 
between the learner and the employer. 

4. Nothing in this agreement shall be disadvantageous to any 
member of a staff who at the time of the agreement coming into 
force is being paid at higher rates than those provided by the scale. 

5. This agreement shall not apply to any junior who during the 
year 1924, under the agreement of 22nd March, 1921, at the age of 
23 qualifies for the journalist's wages. 

6. Nothing in this agreement shall affect any existing agreement 
in the nature of an indenture between a newspaper proprietor and a 
journalistic pupil. 

The Scottish Daily Newspaper Society, on behalf of the Union 
daily newspaper offipes in its membership, agrees to follow the 
foregoing agreement, as if it had been made between the Scottish 
Daily Newspaper Society and the National Union of Journalists. 

PROVINCIAL PRESS PHOTOGRAPHERS 

BY an agreement dated nth July, 1934, Press photographers 
are recognized as journalists. A fully-qualified Press photographer, 
i.e. one employed by a newspaper wholly or mainly for the purpose 
of photographic work, who has attained the age of 24, and has 
earned his living as a Press photographer on newspaper work for 
not less than four years, is entitled to the senior rate of wage 
specified in Clause i of the agreement of March, 1921 (page 241). 
The agreement also provides for junior rates, a limit to the propor- 
tion of juniors on a staff, and other matters. 

HOURS AND HOLIDAYS 

MEMORANDUM passed between the Newspaper Society and the 
Union, i8th June, 1930. 

1. Every journalist shall be entitled normally to one and a half 
days a week or three days a fortnight free from duty of any descrip- 
tion. Sunday may be one of the days. The half-day off shall begin 
not later than i p.m., and shall continue until the usual hour of 
beginning on the following day. The application, of this principle 
shall be subject to local accommodation. 

2. The above is the statement of a principle, and the Newspaper 
Society is prepared to endeavour to adjust any alleged departures 
from the principle in any office by the following method : that the 
President and General Secretary of the Newspaper Society (in 
association with the President and General Secretary of the National 
Union of Journalists) will use their influence in connection with all 
such alleged departures of which details are submitted to them. 

3. The Newspaper Society confirms the principle that every 
journalist is entitled to an annual holiday with pay. 

RATIO OF JUNIORS 

An agreement between the Newspaper Society and the N.U.J., 
of 1 6th March, 1929, stipulates that each learner entering a news- 
paper office shall serve a probationary period of six months before 
he becomes an indentured apprentice ; before the end of that time 
the employer shall review the position in the light of a report from 
the chief of the journalistic staff and decide whether or not the 



244 SUB-EDITING 

junior shall continue in his journalistic employment. limits are 
laid to the number of juniors to be employed, and employers and 
members of the Union are bound to endeavour to give every learner 
the best available practical training. 



WEEKLY PAPERS AND PERIODICALS 

The following Union rates are recommended by the Weekly 
Newspaper and Periodical Proprietors' Association, London, to its 
members 

Per Week 
*. d. 
Editors and Sub-editors with editorial control . 88- 

Chief Sub-editors 7 7 - 

Sub-editors and reporters . . . . .66- 



SCOTTISH NEWSPAPER PROPRIETORS' ASSOCIATION 

The Scottish Newspaper Proprietors' Association agreed to 
recommend to its members the adoption of the following 

1. As from ist January, 1944, the minimum salaries shall bo: 
(see table headed Scotland, page 235.) 

2. These minimum rates to apply to members of the National 
Union of Journalists, irrespective of sex, who have attained the age 
of 24 and who have earned their living as journalists on morning, 
evening, or weekly newspapers for four years, except as otherwise 
provided for in Clause 5. 

3. The minimum salaries for juniors shall be (see table, page 235). 
These rates shall be paid to journalists employed on papers of 5,000 
circulation or more, and on a paper of smaller circulation which is 
one of a number under the same ownership where the cumulo 
circulation is more than 5,000. 

4. A junior to be entitled to these scales shall have had two years' 
experience in a newspaper office of which at least one year shall have 
been on the journalistic staff, or shall have continued his education 
until entering journalism. 

5. A person entering journalism from some other trade or pro- 
fession at over the age of 19$- shall serve a probationary period of 
six months at 25 per cent of the minimum wage applicable at the 
age of 24, and shall then, if retained, receive the scale rate of his age. 

6. These rates are standard minimum rates, and nothing in this 
agreement precludes employers paying more than these rates. 
Salaries paid above the minima are not to be considered standard 
rates. 

7. Nothing in this agreement shall be held to necessitate the 
increase of existing salaries which are higher than those herein laid 
down, but the granting of any increases to higher paid members on 
account of merit shall be left to the discretion of the employers. 
Nothing in this agreement shall be disadvantageous to any member 
of the staff who at the time of the agreement coming into force is 
being paid at higher rates than those provided in the agreement. 

8. A Standing Joint Committee of five representatives from each 
organization shall be formed to discuss any question of difficulty 
arising out of this agreement or any grievance which an employee 



APPENDIX II 245 

or group of employees may have, provided that a statement as to 
such grievance has been forwarded to the employer concerned, either 
by the members themselves or an official of the Union acting on their 
behalf, and satisfactory agreement has been unattainable. This 
Committee shall be called together as and when required by the 
respective secretaries, and shall meet within twenty-eight days of 
either side notifying the other of its desire for a meeting and the 
particular grounds upon which it is desired. 



INDEX 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, ix, x 
Admonitions in brief, 81 
America 

a conservative protest, 214 

achievements, 193 

copy readers at work, 1 1 

education and technique, 208 
good journalism," 216 

historic stories, 202 

New York and Chicago. 199 

passion for news, 220 

schools of journalism, 22, 208 

Sunday budgets, 207 

tribute to Manchester Guard- 
ian, 215 

Arithmetical vigilance, 62 
Art department, 93 

BEAVERBROOK, Lord, advice to 

young journalists, 28 
Blunders in copy, 60 
Brisbane, A., on headlines, 212 

"CHAIN" newspapers, 42 
Chief sub -editors on essentials, 

36 

Common errors, 81-83 
Conference, editorial, 47 
Constructive stories, 63 
Contempt of Court, 176 
Contents bills, 70 
Copy, estimating length, 107 

, rules for preparing, 109 

"Copy Taster," 48 
Copy-reading, American Sylla- 
bus, 211 
Copyright, 190 
Courts martial, procedure, 84 
Crime stories, 194 
Cross-heads, 114 

Daily Universal Register, 6 

~ " Daniel, on public taste, 

T., 26 
," 229 
rtest styles of, 115 




John 



EDITIONS, re-making for late, 

139 

Editor, 2 

Editorial conference, 47 
Education: a half-truth, 21 
Emphasis, methods for giving, 

"3 
Ethics, see Journalism 

FINANCIAL and commercial 

work, 80 
Foreign sub-editing, 73 

HEADLINES, 108 

"agglutinates," 127 

American styles, 199-206, 212 

art of, 119 

contrasts and samples, 120- 
122 

getting the point, 123 

humour in, 129 

"labels," 125 

"narrative" form, 198 
Hearst, W. R., on make-up, 213 
"Human" qualities, 18 

INTRODUCTIONS to stories, 114 

JOURNALISM 
education for, 21 
the new, 8-10 
training in provinces, 23 

LEGAL pitfalls, 148 
contempt of court, 176 
contents bill slip, 185 
copyright, 190 
corporations and companies, 

15* 
council agenda and reports, 

viii 

"criminal investigation," 177 
defences in libel cases, 159 
divorce court, 162 
election case, 174 
fair comment, 164 
famous "name" case, 153 
fisrt photograph case, 179 
"group" libel, 152 



246 



INDEX 



247 



Legal pitfalls (contd.) 
libel by inference, 166 
life stories, 176 
meaning of words, 155 

of "story," 156 

pending appeal, a ruling 

needed, 186 
printer's error, a, 184 
"privilege" denned, 160 
public meetings, 163 
rights of the Press, 168 
risky enterprise, 1 8 1 
"scandalizing a judge," 183 
successful exposures, 169 
the dead, 154 
truth no excuse, i&2 
what a libel is, 150 

Lippmann, W., on disrepu table- 
journalism, 214 

Local papers, 41 

London daily, work on, 44 

MAKING-UP, a Hearst incident, 
213 

developments in, 130 

in America, 197 

Manchester Guardian, 4, 6, 26, 

215 

Memory, value of, 29 
Mind and mechanism, 97 
Muddiman, Henry, 4 

NAUTICAL terms, 83 
New journalism, 8 
Newnes, Sir George, 8 
News 

in everything, 226 

letters, 3 

picking up, 228 

public interest, 223 

schedule, 134 

sense, 17 

sin and the Gospel, 226 

"talking points," 222 

the abnormal, 219 

the raw material, 217 

values, 17, 218 

"vulgarization," 224 
Night editor, 134, 138 
Northcliffe, Lord 

a "splash" story, 57 

and Oxford, 28 

early work, 9 

on new journalism, 10 

on news, 219, 222 



Northcliffe, Lord (contd.) 
on page making, 133 

PAGE making, 130 

amateur v. professional, 137 
a comparison, 140 
late news, 135, 139 
problem of size, 145 / 
quality of surprise, 134 
variety and contrast, 143 

Perils,' some subtle, 67 

Pictorial captions, 78 
journalism, 93 

Proof reading, 102 

, a marked proof and a cor- 
rected proof, 104-5 

marking explained, 103 

Provincial papers, enterprise of, 

24 

training, importance of, 23 

Public meetings, 163 
service, 230 

QUALIFICATIONS for sub-editing, 

16 
views of three chiefs, 36 

RAW material, news, 217 
Reference books, use of, 90 
Reporter, first appearance, 4 

v. sub-editor, x 

Routine jobs, 76 

SALARIES and conditions of 
work, 233-45 

Sea-serpent episode, 75 

Sources of information, 231 

Specialization, 18, 79 

Standardized technique, 208 

Stead, W. T., 8, 9, 27, 52 

Stories, display, 1 1 1 

"Style" books, 86 

Styles of news handling, con- 
trast, 58 

Sub-editor, the 

a modern creation, 3, 7 

an appreciation, 32 

an important "executive," 13 

and the reporter, 12, 31 

definition, 7 

essential qualities, 16, 36 

first-rate men rare, 30 

not a "writing man," 19 

pivot of the paper, 10.' 

subtle perils, 67 

test of ingenuity, 56 , 

work on London daily, 44 



248 



SUB-EDITING 



TEAM spirit, 12 

Technique, standardization of, 

208 

Thackeray, 3 
The Times, 4, 6, 26, 45, 47, 108. 

2O I, 22Q 

Training, 23 
Typography, 95 

estimating length, 107 

point system, 98 

types in general use, 99-101 



UNIVERSITY men in journalism, 
25 



VICTORIAN mentality, 
cliffe on, 10 



North- 



WOMEN, place of, 34 
Words, some office rules, 86 
Writing ability, 19 
"Writing up," 52